Breast-baring occurs in fifth century Attic tragedy in a variety of situations, but almost always within a mournful context. Many connotations of the naked breast—vulnerability, womanhood, motherhood, and voluntary humiliation—can be evoked. Breast-baring can be a precursor of the death of the woman who exposes herself or of the death of the person to whom she makes the gesture. The most commonly represented context is the supplication of a son by a mother, a topos which finds its origin in Hecuba’s supplication of Hector (Il. 22.79-89). As a consistent failure, breast-baring during supplication reinforces the idea, commonly held in the society of the time, that female power is inferior to male power. The motivations for the gesture will be examined both within the respective literary contexts and within the society of the period. / Classics and World Languages / MA (Classical Studies)

Esta tese estuda a adivinhação nas sete tragédias supérstites de Ésquilo entendendo-se a adivinhação não no sentido estrito de revelação de fatos futuros, mas no sentido mais amplo de um diálogo que se estabelece entre as instâncias divina e humana valendo-se de formas e recursos variados. Assim, a análise e interpretação destas tragédias priorizam os diversos aspectos deste diálogo divinatório para mostrar a adivinhação como fundamento da construção de estratégias dramáticas na tragédia esquiliana, por informar e definir tanto a peculiaridade desta poética quanto sua visão do mundo. / This thesis studies divination in the seven surviving tragedies of Aeschylus. Divination is taken here not in the strict sense of revelation of future events, but in the broader sense of a dialogue that is established between divine and human levels through a variety of forms and resources. Thus, the analysis and interpretation of these tragedies prioritises the different aspects of this divinatory dialogue, in order to show that divination is the basis for constructing the dramatic strategies in the tragedies of Aeschylus, since it informs and defines both the particular features of this poetics and its view of the world.

Από τις εμφανίσεις φαντασμάτων στην αρχαιοελληνική λογοτεχνία, άλλες παρουσιάζονται ως ιστορικά γεγονότα, όπως οι εμφανίσεις φαντασμάτων στον Ηρόδοτο, ενώ άλλες υπηρετούν τους σκοπούς του δημιουργού, ενσωματωμένες σε αμιγώς λογοτεχνικά έργα. Η έρευνά μας, επικεντρωμένη στην δεύτερη ομάδα, εξετάζει επιφάνειες φαντασμάτων στον Όμηρο και την αττική τραγωδία, συγκεκριμένα δε αυτές του Πατρόκλου (Ἰλ. Ψ 59-108), του Δαρείου (Πέρσ. 598-842), της Κλυταιμήστρας (Εὐμεν. 94-139) και του Πολυδώρου (Ἑκ. 1-58). Η επιλογή των συγκεκριμένων περιπτώσεων υπαγορεύεται αφενός από την προαναφερθείσα κοινή λογοτεχνική φύση τους, και αφετέρου από την ομοιότητα στα χαρακτηριστικά των σκηνών, δηλαδή των συνθηκών εμφάνισης (χρόνος, χώρος, κατάσταση του ζωντανού δέκτη), της όψης και της συμπεριφοράς των φαντασμάτων (άυλη εμφάνιση, διατήρηση της μορφής, γνωστικό επίπεδο των φαντασμάτων) και της λειτουργίας τους ως λογοτεχνικών χαρακτήρων. Ειδικότερα, ως προς τις συνθήκες εμφάνισης παρατηρείται ισχυρή σύνδεση των φασματικών χαρακτήρων με την νύχτα και τα όνειρα, με την μοναχικότητα του ζωντανού στον οποίο εμφανίζονται, ενώ ο τόπος της εμφάνισης καθορίζεται σε μεγάλο βαθμό από την ευχέρεια που παρέχει στο φάντασμα να επιτύχει την ικανοποίηση των αιτημάτων του. Αναφορικά με την όψη και την συμπεριφορά τους, η έρευνα αποκάλυψε ότι, παρά την άυλη φύση τους (γνωστή ήδη από τους ακυρωμένους εναγκαλισμούς Αχιλλέα-Πατρόκλου στην Ἰλιάδα και Οδυσσέα-Αντίκλειας στην Ὀδύσσεια), οι ψυχές των νεκρών διατηρούν την μορφή του ζωντανού εαυτού τους, ενίοτε φέροντας και τα θανατηφόρα τραύματά τους. Κατά παρόμοιο τρόπο, η συνομιλία μαζί τους εκτυλίσσεται συνήθως σε φυσιολογικές συνθήκες, σαν να πρόκειται δηλαδή για ζωντανό, με εξαίρεση την άγνοιά τους για ορισμένα γεγονότα του Επάνω κόσμου, κυρίως για όσα έχουν συμβεί κατά την παραμονή τους στον Άδη. Τέλος, το αίτημα του φαντάσματος για ταφή ή εκδίκηση εις βάρος του δολοφόνου του (παράμετροι που καθορίζουν σε μεγάλο βαθμό την εμφάνιση), αποσκοπεί στην αποκατάσταση της τάξης (όσον αφορά το ίδιο το φάντασμα και την διαχείριση του νεκρού σώματός του) και, συνεπώς, προωθεί την πλοκή. / Of the appearances of ghosts in the ancient Greek literature, some are incorporated in historical works (such as in the work of Herodotus), whereas others are part of sheer literary works. Our dissertation focuses on four instances from the second category: the ghosts of Patroclus (Iliad 23.59-108), Darius (Aesch. Persae 598-842), Clytemnestra (Aesch. Eumenides 94-139) and Polydorus (Eurip. Hecuba 1-58). The selection of these instances is not only based on their literary context, but mainly on the correspondence on the matters of conditions, in which they make their appearance, on their look and behaviour and, finally, on their function. Particularly, it seems that there is a close connection between ghosts and the night and dreams, as well as with the loneliness of the living person, who meets them. They also seem to appear in places that facilitates the fulfillment of their demand. As for their look, despite their insubstantial nature (known already from the Iliad and Odyssey), the ghosts maintain the appearance of their body, in the case of the biaiothanatoi bearing the wounds, that caused their death. Their knowledge of the Upper World varies, as they sometimes ignore facts, which have happened after their death. Finally, their demand for burial or vengeance against their murderers aims to the instauration of order and, because of its importance, advances the plot.

Dans l’Athènes du Ve siècle avant J.-C., les poètes tragiques étaient responsables de la production entière de leurs œuvres dramatiques, de l’élaboration de l’intrigue à la composition des parties parlées et chantées, de la chorégraphie à la direction d’acteurs, de l’entraînement du chœur à la mise en scène, et Eschyle et Sophocle furent mêmes acteurs dans certains de leurs drames. Les objets font partie des ressources matérielles auxquelles ils ont eu recours pour représenter leurs tragédies dans l’orchestra du théâtre de Dionysos. Épées, boucliers, vases, urnes funéraires, lits ou même chariots attelés, parmi bien d’autres exemples, se trouvent inscrits dans les textes des tragédies qui nous sont parvenus, comme des réalités du monde extérieur avec lesquelles les personnages interagissent et comme des éléments potentiels du spectacle. Par le biais des objets emblématiques qui les révèlent et des instruments qui prolongent leur main dans l’action ou se rebellent, les personnages se trouvent caractérisés comme héros tragiques. Notre travail propose dès lors de voir dans l’objet un principe de composition dramatique et de construction du spectacle de la tragédie, et interroge l’existence d’un imaginaire ou d’une pensée tragique des rapports entre hommes et objets, animés et inanimés. En prenant pour corpus l’ensemble des tragédies conservées d’Eschyle, de Sophocle et d’Euripide, complétées par les fragments les plus significatifs, il vise à faire émerger, dans leurs convergences et leurs singularités, les dramaturgies de l’objet contribuant à exprimer la vision tragique de chacun d’eux. / In fifth-century Athens, tragic dramatists were responsible for the whole production of their plays, from plot-writing to casting, musical composition to choreography, staging to actor’s direction – performance was therefore an essential part of their work. Materialized by props on stage, objects are things with which the characters interact and a potential source of scenic effects. Swords, shields, vases, funerary urns, beds or even wheeled chariots, among many other objects, are mentioned in the extant tragedies and invested with dramatic function and symbolic meaning. Emblematic objects give an insight into the status and ethos of the characters; as instruments, objects are a means to achieve a goal, but they might resist to the characters’ intentions. All of them contribute to characterize them as tragic heroes. Therefore, this dissertation aims to show that the object can be considered as a principle of dramatic composition and of construction of the performance in Greek tragedy; it also questions the existence of a thought or an imagination of the relationships between human beings and objects, animate and inanimate, in the tragic plays. Looking at the whole corpus of extant tragedies by Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides (including the most significative fragments), this work describes the specific dramaturgy of the object developed by each poet to translate into visual and dynamic terms a tragic vision.

Esta tese estuda a adivinhação nas sete tragédias supérstites de Ésquilo entendendo-se a adivinhação não no sentido estrito de revelação de fatos futuros, mas no sentido mais amplo de um diálogo que se estabelece entre as instâncias divina e humana valendo-se de formas e recursos variados. Assim, a análise e interpretação destas tragédias priorizam os diversos aspectos deste diálogo divinatório para mostrar a adivinhação como fundamento da construção de estratégias dramáticas na tragédia esquiliana, por informar e definir tanto a peculiaridade desta poética quanto sua visão do mundo. / This thesis studies divination in the seven surviving tragedies of Aeschylus. Divination is taken here not in the strict sense of revelation of future events, but in the broader sense of a dialogue that is established between divine and human levels through a variety of forms and resources. Thus, the analysis and interpretation of these tragedies prioritises the different aspects of this divinatory dialogue, in order to show that divination is the basis for constructing the dramatic strategies in the tragedies of Aeschylus, since it informs and defines both the particular features of this poetics and its view of the world.

Contrairement à la lamentation rituelle, les lamentations tragiques sont réalisées dans un large éventail de situations. En effet, elles peuvent avoir lieu avant l’événement déploré, porter sur d’autres malheurs qu’un décès, ou encore lamenter le sort de la personne même qui mène la lamentation. Cette variété de contextes est vraisemblablement à l’origine de la grande diversité de formes et de contenus des lamentations que l’on trouve dans le corpus tragique. De quelle façon les tragédiens modifient-ils la forme traditionnelle de la lamentation ? Ces modifications dépendent-elles d’éléments contextuels particuliers ? Pour répondre à ces questions, j’examinerai trois passages : Cassandre dans l’Agamemnon d’Eschyle, Créon dans l’Antigone de Sophocle et Polymestor dans l’Hécube d’Euripide. Ces trois lamentations ont lieu dans des contextes très différents, notamment en ce qui concerne l’identité du lamentant (genre, âge, statut social, ethnicité) et la relation que celui-ci entretient avec le Chœur. De surcroît, elles ont été composées par des auteurs et à des dates différentes, ce qui permettra de prendre en compte l’évolution de la forme au cours du Vème siècle avant J.-C. L’analyse suggère que la forme de la lamentation du personnage s’adapte surtout à son ethnicité et à son genre, tandis que la participation du Chœur dépend directement de sa relation avec le lamentant. Parfois, la stylistique est également influencée par le style propre à l’auteur ou par la date de composition de la pièce. Quant au contenu, les thèmes abordés sont principalement déterminés par la position et la fonction du passage dans la tragédie. Puisque les fonctions d’une lamentation tragique sont différentes de celles d’une lamentation rituelle, le modèle de la lamentation funèbre est insuffisant pour guider à lui seul l’analyse du contenu d’une lamentation tragique. / Unlike ritual laments, tragic laments take place in a wide range of situations. Some are made over troubles other than an actual death, over events that have not happened yet, or over the mourner himself. This seems to be why we find such a huge diversity of both forms and contents of laments within the tragic corpus. How do the tragic poets modify the traditional form of the lament? Do these changes depend on specific contextual elements? In order to answer these questions, I will examine three laments: Cassandra’s in Aeschylus’ Agamemnon, Creon’s in Sophocles’ Antigone and Polymestor’s in Euripides’ Hecuba. These three passages show major contextual discrepancies, especially when it comes to the identity of the mourner (gender, age, social status, ethnicity) and their relationship to the Chorus. Moreover, they were composed by different authors at different times, which accounts for the evolution of the literary form during the 5th century B.C. These contextual differences allow us to identify specific ties between the context and the lament itself. The form of the actor’s part depends mostly on the mourner’s ethnicity and gender, while the Chorus’ part suits its relationship with the mourner. The stylistics of the lament may also result from the author’s personal preferences or from the date of composition. As for the content, it is heavily determined by the position and the function of the passage within the play. As the functions of a tragic lament differ from those of a ritual lament, the model given by ritual lament cannot serve as the only basis for the analysis of a tragic lament’s content.

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