Temperature monitoring is an important tool for a broad variety of sensitive goods to maintain their quality and integrity during supply chain operations. To balance cost and benefit, many applications use sensors that only monitor a specific reference temperature limit. These sensor elements should be lightweight, low cost, and ready for wireless readout. In this work, an innovative sensor concept is presented that can meet these requirements. It irreversibly changes its electrical resistance from low impedance to high impedance if a certain temperature value is violated. The sensor element uses wax as a temperature-dependent element. If its melting temperature is exceeded, the liquid wax starts to flow into a textile reservoir. The descending liquid level of the outflowing wax disrupts an inkjet-printed nanoparticle layer that electrically connects the sensor’s input and output contact. A fluidic resistance between wax and textile reservoir regulates the speed of wax flow. Thus, it is possible to set a time delay for triggering the sensor after the threshold temperature is reached. This article demonstrates the feasibility of the proposed sensor concept experimentally. Furthermore, the sensor element is connected to a custom-made radio frequency identification (RFID) tag, which allows wireless readout of the sensor state. From the authors’ point of view, the simple functional principle combined with the good scalability of the sensor concept offers a high potential for smart packaging applications.

Composite thin Pd/Ag alloy membranes with long-term thermal and chemical stabilities have potential applications for H2 separation via catalytic membrane reactors and may be one of the key determinants to achieve the 21st century's global hydrogen economy. This work provides a detailed microstructure characterization study and a better understanding of the fundamental principles involved in the synthesis of a novel Pd/Ag intermetallic diffusion barrier formed by the bi-metal multi-layer (BMML) deposition technique. The BMML deposition technique formed an extremely effective Pd/Ag intermetallic diffusion barrier and significantly improved the thermal and long-term stability of the composite Pd and Pd/alloy membranes over a temperature range of 500-600oC. In addition, high temperature annealing studies over a temperature range of 500-800oC in H2 atmosphere led a thorough understanding of the surface interactions and the phase changes between the Pd and Ag metals and the porous metal support elements (Fe, Cr and Ni) and it was shown by the SEI, EDX and X-ray phase analyses that the Ag/Fe and Ag/Ni binary systems exerted complete immiscibility compared to the completely miscible solid solutions of Pd/Fe and Pd/Ni phases. A novel characterization method of in-situ time-resolved high temperature X-ray diffraction (HTXRD) analysis was used to elucidate the mechanistic details of the isothermal nucleation and growth kinetics of the Pd/Ag alloy phase over a temperature range of 500-600oC in H2. The nucleation of the Pd/Ag alloy phase was instantaneous where the growth mechanism was through diffusion-controlled one-dimensional thickening of the Pd/Ag alloy layer. The Pd/Ag alloy phase growth was strongly dependent upon the deposition morphology of the as-synthesized Pd and Ag layers due to the presence of the heterogeneous nucleation sites. Based on the empirical rate constants derived from the solid-state reaction models, the estimated activation energies for the Pd/Ag alloy phase transformation were 236.5 and 185.6 kJ/mol and in good agreement with the literature values of 183-239.5 kJ/mol. The successful utilization of surface modification techniques and modified plating conditions led to the synthesis of several dense Pd/Ag layers, which were as thin as 5-15 µm with a bulk Ag content in the 10-40 wt% range. The long-term testing of the composite Pd/Ag membranes (5-15 µm) at 500oC showed stable hydrogen permeances as high as 30 to 54 m3/m2-h-atm0.5 with H2/He selectivities ranging from 200 to 14000. Furthermore, the atomic absorption flame analysis was used for the first time to elucidate the effects of temperature, initial metal ion concentration, initial hydrazine concentration and bath agitation on the electroless plating rates of Pd and Ag. The electroless plating of both Pd and Ag were strongly affected by the external mass transfer in the absence of bath agitation. The external mass transfer limitations for both Pd and Ag deposition have been overcome at or above an agitation rate of 400 rpm, resulting in a maximum conversion of the plating reaction and dramatically shortened plating times with the added advantage of uniform deposition morphology as evidenced by the SEI micrographs. Finally, the agitation rate of 400 rpm was successfully employed for the synthesis of composite Pd and Pd/Ag membranes. The H2 permeance for a 4.7 µm thick pure-Pd membrane at 400oC was as high as 61 m3/m2-h-atm0.5 with H2/He selectivity over 310 after a total testing period of 690 hours.

Atualmente, aplicações de nanopartículas de magnetita (NPs-Fe3O4) têm sido comumente reportadas em inúmeros trabalhos descritos na literatura. Catálise, ferrofluidos e dispositivos de armazenamento de dados são algumas delas. Além disso, aplicações biomédicas têm sido demonstradas. Para esse último, têm-se os exemplos de magneto-hipertermia, liberação controlada de fármacos, agente de contraste em imagens de ressonância magnética e o controle de reações bioeletrocatalíticas envolvendo enzimas redox. Nesta tese, NPs-Fe3O4 foram aplicadas em duas vertentes inéditas. Dessa forma, tendo em vista uma melhor compreensão, a sua escrita foi dividida em dois capítulos, nos quais abordam separadamente cada uma dessas vertentes. O primeiro capítulo descreve a obtenção, modificação e funcionalização de NPs-Fe3O4 a afim de usá-las como uma plataforma para a imobilização do citocromo c (Cyt c); uma proteína redox de comportamento modelo dotada de um grupo prostético heme em sua estrutura terciária. Em seguida, após um efetivo processo de imobilização do Cyt c sobre as NPs-Fe3O4 com superfície modificada, o uso de um campo magnético externo possibilitou a deposição do mesmo na interface eletródica, estabelecendo a reação de transferência direta de elétrons entre o grupo heme e a superfície metálica do eletrodo de trabalho. Além disso, por meio da permuta entre os estados comutáveis switch on e switch off, obteve-se o controle magnético comutável da reação de transferência direta de elétrons do Cyt c quando imobilizado na superfície das NPs-Fe3O4 com superfície modificada. Já para o segundo capítulo, NPs-Fe3O4 foram utilizadas como adesivo magnético a fim de capturar nanoestruturas metálicas hollow (nanocages bimetálicos de Au/Ag) dispersas em suspensão aquosa. Dessa forma, por meio da influência de um campo magnético constante, os aglomerados formados entre esses dois nanomateriais foram depositados sobre uma máscara litográfica, levando a formação de padrões de litografia magnética dispostos sobre a superfície de um substrato de ITO (vidro recoberto com óxido de estanho dopado com índio). Imagens de microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV) comprovaram que a metodologia utilizada para o preparo dos padrões litográficos foi eficaz, apresentando um alto rendimento na obtenção dos mesmos. Além disso, realizou-se com sucesso o mapeamento químico de infravermelho dos padrões litográficos dispostos sobre o ITO. Para isso, empregou-se como alvo os modos vibracionais do polímero polivinilpirrolidona (PVP) utilizado na funcionalização dos nanocages bimetálicos de Au/Ag. Por fim, acredita-se que os padrões litográficos arranjados em macroescala, juntamente com os aglomerados de nanocages bimetálicos alinhados na forma de microfios, possuem potencial aplicação em estudos de espectroscopia de absorção no infravermelho intensificado por superfície (SEIRA). / Currently, applications of magnetite nanoparticles (Fe3O4-NPs) have been commonly reported in many studies in the literature. Catalysis, ferrofluids and data storage devices are some of them. Moreover, biomedical applications have been demonstrated. For the latter, there are the following examples, such as magneto-hyperthermia, controlled release of drugs and the control of bioelectrocatalysis of the enzymatic reactions. In this thesis, Fe3O4-NPs were used in two new applications. Therefore, towards a better understanding its writing was divided into two chapters, which each one of them reports separately these two applications. The first chapter describes the synthesis, modification and functionalization of Fe3O4-NPs in order to use them as a platform for the immobilization of cytochrome c (Cyt c); model redox protein which possess a heme prosthetic group in its tertiary structure. Then, after an effective immobilization of Cyt c on surface-modified Fe3O4-NPs, the use of an external magnetic field permitted the deposition of this redox protein on the electrode interface, establishing the reaction of direct electron transfer between heme prosthetic group and the metallic surface of the working electrode. Furthermore, by the exchange between ON and OFF switch modes was obtained the magnetic control of the direct electron transfer of Cyt c when immobilized on the surface-modified Fe3O4-NPs. For the second chapter, Fe3O4-NPs were used as magnetic adhesive to capture hollow metallic nanostructures (Au-Ag bimetallic nanocages) dispersed in aqueous suspension. Thus, by use of a constant magnetic field, the agglomerates formed between these two nanomaterials were deposited on a lithographic mask, leading to formation of magnetolithograph patterns on the surface of ITO substrate (glass coated with oxide tin-doped indium). Scanning electron microscopy images (SEM) showed that the methodology used for the high-yield preparation of lithographicpatterns was effective. Furthermore, the FTIR chemical mapping of the lithographic patterns arranged on the ITO\'s surface was successfully performed. For this, the CH2 and C-N, C=O vibrational modes of the polyvinylpyrrolidone polymer (PVP) used for the functionalization of Au-Ag bimetallic nanocages were employed as target. Finally, we believed that magnetolithograph patterns arranged in microscale on the ITO surface, and also the clusters of the bimetallic nanocages aligned as micro-wires show potential application in surface-enhanced infrared absorption (SEIRA).

Die vorliegende Arbeit verfolgt das Ziel, Cu(Ag)-Dünnschichten als potentiellen Werkstoff für Leiterbahnen in der Mikroelektronik zu untersuchen. Für die Beurteilung dieses Materialsystems wurden vier Schwerpunkte bezüglich der Schichtcharakterisierung definiert: Herstellung, Gefüge, thermomechanische Eigenschaften, Elektromigrationsresistenz. Grundlage sämtlicher Untersuchungen ist eine geeignete Probenpräparation. In Anlehnung an Technologien, die zur Zeit bei der Herstellung von reinen Cu-Leiterbahnen Anwendung finden, erfolgte die Beschichtung der Cu(Ag)-Schichten (Dicke bis 1 µm) galvanisch aus einem schwefelsauren Elektrolyten unter Additiveinsatz auf thermisch oxidierten Siliziumwafern. Hierbei war nicht nur die Abscheidung von ganzflächigen Dünnschichten, sondern auch die Beschichtung auf strukturierte Substrate von Interesse. Die erzeugten Schichtproben werden in ihren Gefügeeigenschaften, vergleichend zu reinen Kupferschichten, charakterisiert. Hierzu zählen Korngrößen und -orientierungen, thermisches Gefügeverhalten, Einbau, Verteilung und Segregation von Silber und Fremdstoffen sowie die elektrischen Eigenschaften. Von grundsätzlicher Bedeutung für das Elektromigrationsverhalten und damit für die Zuverlässigkeit und das Leistungsvermögen sind die thermomechanischen Eigenschaften. Diese werden an ausgedehnten Schichten mit der Substratkrümmungsmessung bis zu Temperaturen von 500°C beschrieben. Die Diskussion des mechanischen Schichtverhaltens umfasst sowohl thermische als auch temporale Charakteristika. Die Untersuchungen geben einen Einblick in die wirkenden Mechanismen des Stofftransports und des Spannungsabbaus. Den Abschluss der Arbeit stellen erste Experimente zum Elektromigrationsverhalten der Cu(Ag)-Dünnschichten dar. Den Kern dieser Analysen bilden Messungen an sog. Blech-Strukturen (Materialdriftexperimente). Hierbei werden geeignete Technologien für die mikrotechnologische Herstellung von derartigen Cu(Ag)-Strukturen vorgestellt. Anhand erster Messungen wird das Elektromigrationsverhalten von Cu(Ag)-Metallisierungen in seinen Grundcharakteristika beschrieben.

No description available.

Le but de ce travail a été de rechercher les possibilités de la technique ESCA dans la détermination de profils de concentrations sur les cent premiers angströms d'un matériau. La première idée a été d'utiliser la méthode classique de l'abrasion par un bombardement d'ions. Nous avons établi un formalisme permettant d'améliorer la résolution, mais celle-ci reste néanmoins mauvaise à cause des perturbations amenées par l'interaction des ions avec la surface. Cette méthode ne peut cependant pas être écartée car elle donne néanmoins l'allure du profil avec une mauvaise résolution. On a donc cherché une alternative en définissant le principe d'une nouvelle méthode non destructive qui consiste à effectuer une distribution angulaire des électrons analysés. L'extraction du profil passe par une méthode numérique d'optimisation puissante (méthode du Simplexe), mais nécessite d'imposer une contrainte sur la forme du profil, ce qui restreint actuellement le domaine d'applications aux profils monotones (interfaces, diffusions, oxydation, ...). Les études en simulations, puis les applicitions expérimentales (interfaces Ag-Pd, Ag-Al2O3 et SiO2-Si) sont satisfaisantes. Ii est permis de conclure qu'il est possible de déterminer des profils de concentrations par distribution angulaire, à condition d'avoir au préalable bien caractérisé le système à étudier. A cet effet la technique de l'abrasion ionique peut être un moyen d'obtenir la forme du profil en première approximation. Bien que la mise en oeuvre expérimentale de la méthode se soit avérée délicate pour obtenir une mesure fiable et reproductible de rapports d'intensités, et que l'extraction du profil nécessite un temps de calcul d'ordinateur non négligeable, cette nouvelle méthode est capable d'apporter une information de qualité, destinée plutôt d'ailleurs à des études fondamentales qu'à des applications industrielles directes. L'état de la surface de l'échantillon est en effet un critère important de la validité du résultat (nécessité de surfaces peu rugueuses et homogènes, l'analyse n'étant pas ponctuelle), et il convient donc dans la mesure du possible d'utiliser la méthode des distributions angulaires sur des échantillons appropriés pour que la notion de profil fin reste réaliste; l'idéal serait de pouvoir contrôler leur surface par d'autres méthodes, comme la microscopie électronique. De plus, la précision sur la mesure des rapports d'intensités pourrait être améliorée avec un appareillage mieux approprié (spectromètre mobile par exemple). On a vu que les principales limitations observées semblent provenir du fait que l'information sur les concentrations est masquée par l'atténuation exponentielle des électrons; cependant il n'est pas impossible qu'il existe des moyens permettant d'éliminer les solutions aberrantes sans qu'il soit nécessaire d'imposer une contrainte aussi rigide qu'actuellement. Il resterait donc à étendre cette méthode à toutes les formes de profils (notamment dans le but d'étudier le cas particulier intéressant de la ségrégation à la surface d'alliages), et ceci en intervenant surtout au niveau du traitement numérique. D'autre part, il serait intéressant à notre avis de tenter de mettre en oeuvre une autre méthode, à laquelle nous avons déjà fait allusion, basée sur la variation de la profondeur analysée avec l'énergie cinétique des électrons, en utilisant soit plusieurs sources ponctuelles de rayons X, soit le rayonnement synchrotron. Bien que la tentative de Spicer dont nous avons parlé se situe dans des conditions plutôt défavorables, cette dernière reste néanmoins envisageable en utilisant une gamme plus étendue d'énergies excitatrices (de quelques centaines d'eV à quelques KeV).

Surfactant bound stable colloids of Au, Ag, and Pd were prepared by the solvated Metal Atom Dispersion (SMAD) method, a method involving co-condensation of metal and solvent vapors on the walls of a reactor at 77 k. The as=prepared dodecanethiol-capped Au and Ag colloids consisting of polydisperse nanoparticles were transformed into colloids consisting of highly monodisperse nanoparticles by the digestive ripening process. In the case of Pd colloids, digestive ripening led to the formation of thiolate complexes. The [Pd(SC12H25)2]6 complex formed from the dodecanethiol-capped Pd nanoparticles was found to be a versatile precursor for the synthesis of a variety of Pd nanophases such as Pd(0), PdS, and Pd@PdO by soventless thermolysis. Co-digestive ripening of as-prepared dodecanethiol-capped Au or Ag colloids with Pd colloid resulted in Au@Pd and Ag@Pd core-shell nanoparticles, respectively; attempts to transform the core-shell structures into alloy phases even at high temperatures were unsuccessful. Phosphine-capped Au nanoparticles were also prepared by the SMAD method and refluxing of this colloid resulted in an Ostwald ripening process rather than the expected digestive ripening due to the labile nature of bound PPh3. The labile nature of the bound phosphine was studied using 31P NMR spectroscopy and utilized in the adsorption of CO. Palladium nanoparticles obtained from the SMAD Pd-butanone colloids and Pd@PdO nanoparticles prepared by the solventless thermolysis of Pd-dodecanethiolate complex were found to be good catalysts for the generation of H2 from AB via either hydrolysis and methanolysis. The active hydrogen atoms produced during the hydrolysis and methanolysis diffuse into the Pd lattice. It was also noticed that hydrogen atoms that were buried deep inside the Pd lattice cannot be removed completely by heating the sample even at 600°C. Wet chemical reduction method was employed for the synthesis of PVP capped, nearly monodisperse, spherical Ir nanoparticles which undergo a polymer driven self-assembly at 80°C to afford rectangular structures and interlinked particles.

Atualmente, aplicações de nanopartículas de magnetita (NPs-Fe3O4) têm sido comumente reportadas em inúmeros trabalhos descritos na literatura. Catálise, ferrofluidos e dispositivos de armazenamento de dados são algumas delas. Além disso, aplicações biomédicas têm sido demonstradas. Para esse último, têm-se os exemplos de magneto-hipertermia, liberação controlada de fármacos, agente de contraste em imagens de ressonância magnética e o controle de reações bioeletrocatalíticas envolvendo enzimas redox. Nesta tese, NPs-Fe3O4 foram aplicadas em duas vertentes inéditas. Dessa forma, tendo em vista uma melhor compreensão, a sua escrita foi dividida em dois capítulos, nos quais abordam separadamente cada uma dessas vertentes. O primeiro capítulo descreve a obtenção, modificação e funcionalização de NPs-Fe3O4 a afim de usá-las como uma plataforma para a imobilização do citocromo c (Cyt c); uma proteína redox de comportamento modelo dotada de um grupo prostético heme em sua estrutura terciária. Em seguida, após um efetivo processo de imobilização do Cyt c sobre as NPs-Fe3O4 com superfície modificada, o uso de um campo magnético externo possibilitou a deposição do mesmo na interface eletródica, estabelecendo a reação de transferência direta de elétrons entre o grupo heme e a superfície metálica do eletrodo de trabalho. Além disso, por meio da permuta entre os estados comutáveis switch on e switch off, obteve-se o controle magnético comutável da reação de transferência direta de elétrons do Cyt c quando imobilizado na superfície das NPs-Fe3O4 com superfície modificada. Já para o segundo capítulo, NPs-Fe3O4 foram utilizadas como adesivo magnético a fim de capturar nanoestruturas metálicas hollow (nanocages bimetálicos de Au/Ag) dispersas em suspensão aquosa. Dessa forma, por meio da influência de um campo magnético constante, os aglomerados formados entre esses dois nanomateriais foram depositados sobre uma máscara litográfica, levando a formação de padrões de litografia magnética dispostos sobre a superfície de um substrato de ITO (vidro recoberto com óxido de estanho dopado com índio). Imagens de microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV) comprovaram que a metodologia utilizada para o preparo dos padrões litográficos foi eficaz, apresentando um alto rendimento na obtenção dos mesmos. Além disso, realizou-se com sucesso o mapeamento químico de infravermelho dos padrões litográficos dispostos sobre o ITO. Para isso, empregou-se como alvo os modos vibracionais do polímero polivinilpirrolidona (PVP) utilizado na funcionalização dos nanocages bimetálicos de Au/Ag. Por fim, acredita-se que os padrões litográficos arranjados em macroescala, juntamente com os aglomerados de nanocages bimetálicos alinhados na forma de microfios, possuem potencial aplicação em estudos de espectroscopia de absorção no infravermelho intensificado por superfície (SEIRA). / Currently, applications of magnetite nanoparticles (Fe3O4-NPs) have been commonly reported in many studies in the literature. Catalysis, ferrofluids and data storage devices are some of them. Moreover, biomedical applications have been demonstrated. For the latter, there are the following examples, such as magneto-hyperthermia, controlled release of drugs and the control of bioelectrocatalysis of the enzymatic reactions. In this thesis, Fe3O4-NPs were used in two new applications. Therefore, towards a better understanding its writing was divided into two chapters, which each one of them reports separately these two applications. The first chapter describes the synthesis, modification and functionalization of Fe3O4-NPs in order to use them as a platform for the immobilization of cytochrome c (Cyt c); model redox protein which possess a heme prosthetic group in its tertiary structure. Then, after an effective immobilization of Cyt c on surface-modified Fe3O4-NPs, the use of an external magnetic field permitted the deposition of this redox protein on the electrode interface, establishing the reaction of direct electron transfer between heme prosthetic group and the metallic surface of the working electrode. Furthermore, by the exchange between ON and OFF switch modes was obtained the magnetic control of the direct electron transfer of Cyt c when immobilized on the surface-modified Fe3O4-NPs. For the second chapter, Fe3O4-NPs were used as magnetic adhesive to capture hollow metallic nanostructures (Au-Ag bimetallic nanocages) dispersed in aqueous suspension. Thus, by use of a constant magnetic field, the agglomerates formed between these two nanomaterials were deposited on a lithographic mask, leading to formation of magnetolithograph patterns on the surface of ITO substrate (glass coated with oxide tin-doped indium). Scanning electron microscopy images (SEM) showed that the methodology used for the high-yield preparation of lithographicpatterns was effective. Furthermore, the FTIR chemical mapping of the lithographic patterns arranged on the ITO\'s surface was successfully performed. For this, the CH2 and C-N, C=O vibrational modes of the polyvinylpyrrolidone polymer (PVP) used for the functionalization of Au-Ag bimetallic nanocages were employed as target. Finally, we believed that magnetolithograph patterns arranged in microscale on the ITO surface, and also the clusters of the bimetallic nanocages aligned as micro-wires show potential application in surface-enhanced infrared absorption (SEIRA).

Lyme borreliosis is a multisystemic disease affecting skin, joints, heart and central nervous system. The disease is caused by spirochetes of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato complex. These bacteria are spread by ticks of Ixodes genus. In 2016 there were almost 4,000 newly infected individuals reported in the Czech Republic. Contemporary serological diagnostics of Lyme borreliosis is not sensitive nor specific enough and does not even correlate with the pathology of the disease in the early or late phases. For the correct diagnosis of the disease it is necessary to detect the pathogen and its genotype. For this reason we had aimed at two goals. Through the digital droplet PCR (ddPCR) method we detected Borrelia-specific DNA and its genotype. The detection limit of borrelial DNA was set on gDNA samples isolated from the tick. Detection threshold for the initial amount of 1 ng of tick gDNA is at the range of 10-17 g of specific borrelial DNA. Borrelia spp. coinfection was detected in 5 out of 12 tested samples. The most frequent type was B. garinii which was detected in 5 samples. On the basis of published sequences for virulent factors we have designed specific primers in conserved regions of the genes flanking their variable segments to be PCR amplified. Gene variability will be monitored through...

The thesis entitled “Novel Cationic Gemini Lipids, Click Chemistry Based Adducts and Amphiphile-Capped Silver Nanostructures: Synthesis, Aggregation and Biological Properties” elucidates the design, synthesis, aggregation and gene transfection properties of novel gemini cationic lipids based on cholesterol and pseudoglyceryl backbone, and click chemistry based adducts. This thesis also elucidates the synthesis and aggregation properties of silver nanoparticles loaded cationic liposomes and silver nanorods stabilized by micellar solutions of gemini surfactants. The work has been divided into six chapters. Chapter 1: Introduction: Membrane Formation from Cholesterol-based Cationic Lipids and their use as Non-Viral Gene Delivery Agents This chapter describes the importance of cholesterol in biological membranes, the aggregation properties of cholesterol-based cationic lipids and their interactions with phospholipid membranes. This chapter also gives a comprehensive account of the research towards the development of novel cationic cholesterol-based monomeric and gemini lipids. It also reviews the utilization of cholesterol-based cationic monomeric and gemini lipids in gene transfection properties. Chapter 2A: Effect of Hydroxyl group on the Cationic Headgroups of Cholesterol-based Gemini Lipids on their Aggregation, DNA Binding Properties and Interaction with Phospholipid Membranes This chapter describes the syntheses and aggregation properties of two series of cholesterol-based monomeric and gemini cationic lipids with and without hydroxyl functionality (Figure 1). The gemini lipids of a given series differ in their spacer polymethylene -(CH2)n- chain lengths between the cationic headgroups. Figure 1. Molecular structures of non-hydroxylated and hydroxylated cationic cholesterol-based gemini lipids and their monomeric counterparts. All monomeric and gemini lipids were found to generate stable suspensions in aqueous media. Electron microscopic studies showed that all the lipids form vesicular aggregates in aqueous media. The structures seen under TEM for the non-hydroxylated series of monomeric (C-M) and gemini lipids are of variable sizes, they appeared like separated vesicular aggregates. For the hydroxylated series of lipids, however, both the monomeric lipid aggregates (CH-M) and aggregates of their gemini counterparts were found to be ‘connected’ with each other to form elongated chain of aggregates of different length scales. XRD studies with the cast films of lipids revealed that the monomeric lipids of either series have higher bilayer width than the corresponding gemini lipids. Incorporation of the -(CH2)n- spacer units at the head group level joining the two monomeric units lowered the bilayer thicknesses of both series of the lipid aggregates. Thus the monomeric lipids (C-M and CH-M) appear to form nearly regular bilayer type arrangements whereas gemini lipids form interdigited and tilted bilayer arrangements in their aggregates. Calorimetry studies of the coaggregates showed that ~10 mol-% of most of the cholesterol gemini lipids is enough to abolish the phase transition of DPPC membranes whereas more than 10 mol-% is required in case of their monomeric counterparts. Further these thermotropic properties depend upon the length of the spacer of the gemini lipid included in the mixture. We have observed greater quenching of the thermal phase transition of DPPC membranes with 10 mol-% of C-M as compared to CH-M doped liposomes. At 10 mol-% of all the cationic lipid doped DPPC covesicles, only CG-3 doped liposomes showed an observable transition temperature. Maximum broadening of the DPPC transition peak was observed in the case of the gemini lipids, CHG-6 and CHG-12. DNA binding and release studies show that the interactions between gemini lipids and DNA depend upon the nature of the head group as well as the length of the spacer between the cationic head groups. For the non-hydroxylated cholesterol-based cationic lipid series, the monomeric liposomes of C-M facilitates the dissociation of EB from the EB-DNA complex to an extent of 93% at a maximum lipid:DNA ratio of 3.0 whereas the liposomes of CG-4 and CG-12 showed the lowest extent of maximum EB exclusion (~74%) from the EB-DNA complex at lipid:DNA ratio of 3.0. For hydroxylated cholesterol-based cationic lipid series, the monomeric liposomes of CH-M facilitate the dissociation of EB from the intercalated EB-DNA complex to an extent of 81 % whereas the liposomes of CHG-3 showed the minimum binding to DNA. Thus the two monomeric liposomes C-M and CH-M were the more efficient formulations that allow dissociation of DNA from the corresponding lipoplexes. These findings have important being in their gene transfection activity compared their respective gemini lipid counterparts. Chapter 2B: Novel Cholesterol-based Cationic Gemini Lipids possessing Hydroxyethyl group on the Headgroup: Transfection Efficacy and Cell Toxicity Properties This chapter describes the transfection efficacy and cell toxicity properties of five cholesterol based gemini cationic lipids possessing hydroxyethyl functionality on each head group, which differ in the length of the polymethylene spacer [-(CH2)n-] chain (Figure 2). These gemini lipids are important to gene delivery processes as they possess pre-optimized molecular features, e.g., cholesterol backbone, ether linkage and a variable spacer chain between both the headgroups of the gemini lipids. Cationic liposomes were prepared from each of these lipids individually and as a mixture of individual cationic gemini lipid and 1,2-dioleoylphosphatidylethanolamine (DOPE). The gemini lipid with a hydroxyethylated headgroup and a -(CH2)5- spacer, CHG-5 showed the highest transfection activity at N/P (lipid/DNA) ratio of 0.5 and lipid:DOPE molar ratio of 2. Upon comparison of the relevant parameters, e.g., % transfected cells, the amount of DNA transfected to each cell and % cell viability all together against LipofectAMINE 2000, one of the most potent commercially available transfecting agents, the optimized lipid formulation based on CHG-5/DOPE was found to be comparable. In terms of its ability to induce gene-transfer in presence of serum and shelf-life CHG-5/DOPE liposome was found to be better than its commercial counterpart. Recording of confocal images confirmed that in presence of 10% serum using 1.2 µg DNA per well and lipid:DOPE ratio of 1:4 and N/P charge ratio of 0.75, CHG-5 is better than LipofectAMINE 2000. These properties render them to be reagents of practical value for various gene delivery applications. Figure 2. Molecular structures of cholesterol-based cationic monomeric lipid and gemini lipids possessing hydroxyethyl group on the headgroup synthesized. Chapter 3: Bilayer Membrane and Stable Monolayer Forming Properties of Cationic Pseudoglyceryl Gemini Lipids having Polymethylene Spacers and Oxyethylene Linkages This chapter describes the synthesis of five new cationic pseudoglyceryl gemini lipid versions of their monomeric counterpart (Figure 3). Each cationic lipid aggregate in aqueous media was found to form vesicular structures as evidenced from the negatively stained TEM experiments and DLS measurements. XRD experiments with their cast films of aqueous dispersions revealed that introduction of the polymethylene -(CH2)n-spacer chain joining the two monomers decreased the bilayer widths of the gemini lipid aggregates. The inter-lipidic packing and the hydration of the lipid vesicles were examined using fluorescence anisotropy and generalized polarization measurements using membrane-soluble probes, DPH and Paldan respectively. Fluorescence anisotropy measurements showed that the aggregates of lipid 2c with -(CH2)5- spacer chain were highly packed and ordered in the vesicular aggregates than that of the other cationic lipid aggregates in the series. Paldan hydration studies showed that incorporation of the polymethylene -(CH2)n- spacer chains joining two monomeric units lowered the hydration of the gemini lipid aggregates in the solid gel state. Each of these cationic lipid aggregates showed sharp transition temperatures (Tm) as observed from differential scanning calorimetric studies. DSC studies further revealed that the incorporation of oxyethylene group at the linker region of cationic pseudoglyceryl gemini lipid 2a with (CH2)3- spacer chain length lowered the thermotropic phase transition temperature (Tm) of the aggregates in aqueous media when compared with the corresponding gemini analogue without oxyethylene linkages. Langmuir film balance studies showed that each cationic gemini lipid and their monomeric counterpart were able to form stable monolayers at the air-water interphase. We observed that the mean molecular area (collapse area) of each of the cationic lipid obtained from the Langmuir monolayer studies increased with increase in the spacer chain lengths. Figure 3. Molecular structures of the cationic pseudoglyceryl gemini lipids and their monomeric counterpart. Chapter 4: Vesicle and Stable Monolayer Formation from Simple ‘Click’ Chemistry Adducts in Water This chapter describes successful use of Cu(I) catalyzed “Click Chemistry” for the syntheses of a series of hitherto unknown amphiphilic adducts (M1, M2, D1 and T1) which on dispersal in water afforded vesicular aggregates as evidenced from dye entrapment, TEM, SEM, AFM and DLS studies (Figure 4). Figure 4. Molecular structures of triazole based adducts. XRD experiments with their cast films of aqueous suspensions indicate the formation of a tilted bilayer arrangement for the aggregates of M1 whereas regular bilayer structures are predominant for the aggregates derived from M2, D1 and T1. Measurement of pKa values using UV-Vis spectroscopy showed that the aggregates of monomeric click adducts (M1 and M2) possess less pKa value than that of the aggregates of dimeric (D1) and tetrameric (T1) analogues and the values lie within the range of 2.8-3.2. The hydrodynamic diameter of the aggregates of each click adduct increased with decrease in the pH of the media. Thus, the protonation of the triazole groups in the aggregates of each click adduct increased the hydrodynamic diameter. Dye entrapment studies showed that each click chemistry based adduct formed closed vesicular aggregates with inner aqueous compartment in aqueous media. The temperature induced order-to-disorder transitions of the aggregates and the accompanying changes in hydration were examined using high sensitive DSC, fluorescence anisotropy and generalized polarization measurements using a membranesoluble probe, DPH and Paldan respectively. In the solid state, M1 remains as the most hydrated species whereas in the fluidized phase, D1 maintains as the most hydrated aggregate. Clearly simple variation in the adduct molecular architecture bring about significant changes in their packing in aggregates and also the hydration of the resulting vesicles. Langmuir monolayer studies confirmed that these click adducts do form stable monolayers as well on water subphase at the air-water interface. We also calculated the mean molecular areas from the Langmuir monolayer studies and as perhaps expected the adduct T1 has the highest head group area. Thus click chemistry based simple triazole adducts, which can be very easily prepared, are good candidates for further investigations involving syntheses of novel self-assembling structures. Chapter 5: Lipid Mediated Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles, their Physical Characterizations and DNA Binding Abilities In this chapter, work on the Ag-NP (silver nanoparticle) loaded liposomes preparation using four cationic lipids (1-4) in which the Ag-NPs were entrapped within lipid bilayer has been described. A novel method was developed to synthesize the Ag-NPs where the lipid itself capped and stabilized the Ag-NPs. Consequently there was no need of inclusion of any other capping agents like citrate. Confocal microscopy confirmed that these Ag-nanoparticles are fluorescent in character. It was also demonstrated that silver nanoparticles are indeed entrapped in lipid bilayer with transmission electron microscopy (TEM). DLS experiments provided information about the hydrodynamic diameter of the lipid vesicles which increased with the increase in Ag concentrations. This could be due to the ‘loosening’ of the lipid packing in vesicles. Zeta potential measurements showed that the zeta potential value decreased with the increase in the concentration of Ag-NPs in the cationic lipid vesicles. XRD studies with the cast films of the lipid or Ag-NP loaded lipid suspensions revealed that when the Ag-NPs get entrapped into the bilayer of the multilamellar vesicles of the lipid in the aqueous media, the unit bilayer thickness of the aggregates increased. Paldan experiments showed that with the incorporation of Ag-NPs in the lipid vesicles, the hydration of the lipid vesicles increased to a significant extent but the phase transition temperatures remained practically unaltered for all the lipids. Fluorescence anisotropy experiments revealed that the hydrocarbon chain packing of the lipid vesicles ‘loosens’ with the incorporation of Ag-NPs. Ag-NP loaded liposomes showed enhanced DNA binding ability and also the presence of Ag-NPs in cationic liposomes induced the release of DNA from silver nanoparticle-loaded lipoplexes more effectively. Figure 5. Molecular structures of the cationic lipids mentioned in the present chapter. Chapter 6: Dependence of Spacer Chain Lengths in the Synthesis of Ag-Nanorods in Gemini Cationic Surfactant Micelles Figure 6. Chemical structures of cationic gemini surfactants. This chapter describes the synthesis of Ag-nanospecies by seed-mediated wet synthesis method using four gemini surfactants (16-2-16, 16-4-16, 16-5-16 and 16-1216) as the capping agents (Figure 6). For this, we first synthesized Ag-nanoseeds of diameter ~7 nm stabilized by trisodium citrate (as capping agent). Then the solution containing Ag-nanoseeds was used to synthesize Ag-nanorods of different aspect ratios. It was that with decreasing Ag-nanoseed concentration, the aspect ratios of Agnanorods stabilized by gemini surfactants (16-2-16 and 16-4-16) increased gradually as evidenced from TEM images. These Ag-nanoseeds and Ag-nanorods were further characterized using UV-Vis spectroscopy (to know the surface plasmon bands), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDAX) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). It was observed that when gemini surfactant 164-16 was used to stabilize Ag-nanorods, the λmax of the longitudinal band shifted more towards the red region (red-shift) as observed by UV-Vis spectroscopy when compared to that of gemini surfactant with shortest spacer, 16-2-16. Thus the gemini surfactants with shorter -(CH2)2- and -(CH2)4- spacer chains promoted the growth of Ag-nanorods in their micellar solutions whereas -(CH2)5- and -(CH2)12- spacer chains of gemini surfactants did not. So, the growth of Ag-nanorods in micellar solutions is found to be highly spacer-chain length specific. TEM micrographs revealed that the aspect ratios of Ag-nanorods stabilized by gemini surfactants 16-4-16 are larger than those compared to the Ag-nanorods stabilized by gemini surfactants 16-2-16 at a particular amount of Agnanoseed solution. TEM images of the samples containing micellar solutions of gemini surfactants 16-5-16 and 16-12-16 showed that the formation of only Ag-nanoparticles of larger sizes (compared to Ag-nanoseeds stabilized by trisodium citrate) and Agnanoprisms irrespective of the amount of Ag-nanoseed solution added. No Ag-nanorod formation in the micellar solutions of gemini surfactants 16-5-16 and 16-12-16 was observed. Gemini surfactants (16-2-16 and 16-4-16) formed bilayer arrangements to facilitate the growth and stabilization of Ag-nanorods in aqueous media where the inner layer is attached to the Ag-nanorod surface through the gemini surfactant ammonium headgroups. X-ray diffraction (XRD) studies showed that these Ag-nanorods stabilized by gemini surfactants 16-2-16 and 16-4-16 crystallized in the aqueous media via (111), (220) and (222) lattice faces. Thus this study demonstrated the way one can control structures and shapes of the silver nanoobjects using gemini surfactant micelles. (For structural formula pl refer the thesis)