A universalidade do juízo de gosto não tem um princípio objetivo porque não pretende determinar nenhum objeto. Mas para assegurar sua necessidade e escapar da contingência da experiência, ela se ampara no princípio exemplar do senso comum (Gemeinsinn), ou seja, num princípio subjetivo que determina apenas por sentimento, e não por conceito, aquilo que apraz ou não apraz. No entanto, sob a pressuposição de um assentimento universal a respeito do que é belo, a necessidade neste juízo adquire uma representação objetiva baseada no fundamento de nosso sentimento. É na dedução deste fundamento do sensus communis que se concentra nosso esforço nesta dissertação, pois tentaremos mostrar que ela percorre toda a Crítica da Faculdade de Julgar Estética. / The universality of judgement of taste has none objective principle because does not intend to determine any object. Nevertheless, in order to assure its necessity and to escape from the experience\'s contingency, this universality supports itself in exemplary principle of common sense (Gemeinsinn), in other words, in a subjective principle which determines what is pleasure or not, only by feeling and not by concept. Although, under the presupposition of a universal agreement regarding what is beautiful, the necessity in this judgement acquires an objective representation based on our feeling\'s ground. It is in this deduction of this ground of sensus communis that concentrates our effort in this dissertation, because we will try to demonstrate that it courses through the entire Critique of Aesthetic Judgement.

Ao longo das últimas décadas, o estigma relacionado a grupos minoritários em virtude da religião, etnia, sexualidade, gênero ou outras características tem consistido em tema de debate em diferentes lugares do mundo. O Brasil não constituiu exceção a essa tendência. Em 08 de dezembro de 2011, o Projeto de Lei da Câmara nº 122 (PLC 122/06), cujo objetivo principal era criminalizar a LGBTfobia no país, foi debatido na Comissão de Direitos Humanos e Legislação Participativa do Senado Federal. O projeto, proposto pela deputada federal Iara Bernardi, consistia em uma resposta aos alarmantes números da violência em função de identidade de gênero e orientação sexual no Brasil. Participaram do debate os senadores Paulo Paim, Marta Suplicy, Magno Malta, Marinor Brito, Cristovam Buarque, Lídice da Mata, Marcelo Crivella, Eduardo Suplicy e Sérgio Petecão. O registro e a transmissão do debate foram feitos pela TV Senado. O debate foi marcado por intensa discordância entre senadores favoráveis e contrários aprovação do projeto. O dissenso entre esses grupos marcou-se linguísticodiscursivamente de variadas formas, entre as quais destacamos a construção de analogias de que seus membros lançaram mão com o objetivo de justificar seus posicionamentos políticos e de argumentar em favor deles. A tese defendida neste trabalho é que as analogias, em virtude da seletividade que lhes é inerente, colaboram para a construção de conceptualizações da realidade, as quais podem ser manipuladas a depender dos objetivos argumentativos dos oradores. Pressupomos, pois, que as analogias utilizadas têm função argumentativa e podem influenciar a maneira como se conceptualiza o projeto de lei, seus defensores e aqueles que a ele se opõem a ele. Tendo isso em vista, este trabalho objetiva identificar e analisar qualitativamente as analogias empregadas, a fim de desvelar as representações do PLC 122/06 e dos debatedores com cuja criação elas colaboram. A fim de viabilizar a identificação e análise das analogias, procedeu-se à transcrição do registro do debate feito pela TV Senado, o qual ocupou aproximadamente 1h33 de uma sessão da comissão de Direitos Humanos e Legislação Participativa do Senado Federal. A transcrição do debate foi feita em conformidade com as orientações do Projeto de Estudos da Norma Linguística Urbana Culta de São Paulo (Projeto NURC-SP). Constituem a base teórica deste trabalho estudos nas áreas de Argumentação (PERELMAN & OLBRECHTS-TYTECA, 1996 [1958]), Estudos Cognitivos da Analogia (HOLYOAK, 2005; GENTNER & BOWDLE, 2008; GENTNER & FORBUS, 2011) e Estudos Críticos do Discurso (VAN DIJK, 2014, 2012, 2008, 2006), entre outros. A análise do corpus permitiu constatar que os grupos discordantes, por meio do recurso a analogias, negociam o significado da aprovação do PLC122/06 para a sociedade brasileira, ora defendendo uma pretensa aceitabilidade deste, ora negando-a. A análise permitiu, além disso, que se descrevessem os usos de analogias dos senadores em termos de nichos analógicos e amálgamas, os quais têm função estruturante e argumentativa no debate sob análise. / The stigma directed toward minority groups because of their religion, ethnicity, sexuality, genre and other features has been a debate topic in different parts of the world throughout the past decades. Brazil was no exception to that tendency. On December 8th, 2011, bill no. 122/2006, which aimed at outlawing prejudice against the LGBT community in Brazil, was debated by the Human Rights and Participative Legislation Committee of the Federal Senate. The bill, proposed by Federal Deputy Iara Bernardi, was a response to the alarming rates of crimes motivated by sex orientation and genre identity in Brazil. Senators Paulo Paim, Marta Suplicy, Magno Malta, Marinor Brito, Cristovam Buarque, Lídice da Mata, Marcelo Crivella, Eduardo Suplicy, and Sérgio Petecão participated in the debate, which was recorded and aired by TV Senado. The debate was characterized by profound dissensus between senators who were favorable and unfavorable to the approval of the bill. The dissensus between those two groups was marked linguistically and discursively in various ways, including analogies, which are used by senators to justify the political stands they take and to argument in favor of them. The thesis that is defended in this work is that, because analogies are intrinsically selective, they may create different conceptualizations of reality, which means that they may be manipulated to meet the argumentative objectives of the speakers. It is thus assumed that analogies in discourse have argumentative roles and may influence the way in which the bill, its supporters and its opponents are conceptualized. Considering that, the objective of this work is to identify and analyze qualitatively the analogies used by the senators, so that the conceptualizations of the project, its opponents and its supporters they suggest can be observed. The transcription of the debate has been done according to the guidelines published by the Project of Study of the Standard Urban Linguistic Norm of São Paulo (Projeto NURC-SP). The theoretical basis of this work is to be found in studies in the areas of Argumentation (PERELMAN & OLBRECHTS-TYTECA, 1996 [1958]), Cognitive Studies of Analogy (HOLYOAK, 2005; GENTNER & BOWDLE, 2008; GENTNER & FORBUS, 2011), Critical Discourse Studies (VAN DIJK, 2014, 2012, 2008, 2006), among others. The analysis of the corpus made possible to conclude that the two groups of senators, by means of analogies, negotiate the meaning of the approval of the bill for the Brazilian population, sometimes defending the acceptability of the bill, sometimes calling it into question. The analysis also allowed the proposal and description of the concepts of analogical niches and amalgams, which both structure the debate and are used for argumentation purposes.

Esse trabalho tem como principal objetivo estudar a influência das similaridades afetivas de problemas mal-definidos no processo de transferência analógica. Procura estudar, de modo mais específico, o efeito sobre a transferência analógica da similaridade entre as tonalidades afetivas agradáveis/alegres e desagradáveis/ tristes de histórias, que apresentam problemas análogos ao problema da radiação de Duncker. Esses efeitos são, por sua vez, investigados a partir da preferência, na situação-problema alvo, por um modo de solução aprendido na situação-problema fonte, quando vários modos de solução são apresentados aos participantes da pesquisa. Objetiva-se investigar esse tipo de influência em dois intervalos de tempo distintos: em sessões consecutivas e em sessões com intervalo de uma semana. Os resultados encontrados apontam para a existência de efeitos positivos dessas similaridades nos dois intervalos de tempo pesquisados, com maior freqüência relativa nas sessões consecutivas. Desse modo, pode-se concluir que, quando há mais de uma solução disponível e funcionalmente adequada para um determinado problema, similaridades de superfície, como as tonalidades afetivas de histórias de problemas, influenciam a preferência por um modo de solução. Verificou-se ainda que esse tipo de influência das similaridades afetivas não depende de uma alteração do estado de humor dos indivíduos. O papel do afeto na cognição poderia ser assim visto como mais abrangente do que o pressuposto na literatura da área, pois mesmo quando os indivíduos não se consideram afetados em seu humor pela leitura de histórias tristes e alegres, eles demonstram sofrer a influência das tonalidades afetivas dessas histórias. / The objective of this work is to study the influence of affective similarities of illdefined problems in analogical transfer. In a specific way, it seeks to study the effect of the similarities of happy/ pleasant and sad/ unpleasant affective tonalities of stories presented in problems analogs to the Dunckers radiation problem. These effects are investigated through the preference, in the target problem, for one kind of solution learned in the source problems, when more than one solution is presented. This research also focuses on such an influence in two different times: consecutive sessions and sessions with one week delay. The results point out to the existence of positive effects of these similarities in both intervals of time, with higher relative frequency in the consecutive sessions. The conclusion is that surface similarities, like the affective similarities of problems, influence the preference for one kind of solution, when there is more than one appropriate solution to the problem. It is showed that such an influence doesnt require a change in the individuals mood. It also suggests that the influence of the affect in cognition is broader than it is assumed in the literature, because even when the individuals dont report a change in their mood, they are influenced by the affective similarities of the problems stories.

Neste estudo, trato do papel do raciocínio analógico no pensamento de Georg Simmel (1858-1918), um dos fundadores da sociologia alemã. Meu objetivo aqui é compreender o procedimento analógico como um traço fundamental da teoria social e da epistemologia de Simmel. É possível resumir o primeiro passo para a realização desse objetivo como uma reconstrução daqueles fragmentos da história do conceito de analogia que influenciaram seu pensamento. Busquei, em seguida, coletar todas as ocorrências de analogia que fui capaz de encontrar (e identificar enquanto tais) em meio aos livros de Simmel que mais teriam influenciado a sociologia (a saber: a Philosophie des Geldes e a Soziologie) construindo, assim, um índice abrangente para tais analogias. Finalmente, procurei analisar algumas das analogias coletadas em detalhe, mantendo o foco naquelas que, a meu ver, lançam alguma luz ou estão de algum modo relacionadas a outros traços fundamentais do pensamento sociológico e filosófico de Simmel. / In this study I deal with the role of analogical reasoning in the thought of Georg Simmel (1858-1918), one of the founders of German sociology. My aim here is to grasp the analogy-making as a key feature of Simmels social theory and epistemology. The first step in this direction can be summed up as a recollection of those fragments of the history of the analogy concept which most likely influenced Simmels thought. Secondly, I endeavored to collect all the instances of analogy that I could find (and identify as such) from those of his books which are deemed to be the most influential ones to sociology (viz., the Philosophie des Geldes and the Soziologie) elaborating, as a result, a broad index of such analogies. And finally I sought to analyze in minute detail some of the collected analogies, focusing on those which, on my view, shed light on or bear some relation to other key features of Simmels sociological and philosophical thought.

Neste estudo, trato do papel do raciocínio analógico no pensamento de Georg Simmel (1858-1918), um dos fundadores da sociologia alemã. Meu objetivo aqui é compreender o procedimento analógico como um traço fundamental da teoria social e da epistemologia de Simmel. É possível resumir o primeiro passo para a realização desse objetivo como uma reconstrução daqueles fragmentos da história do conceito de analogia que influenciaram seu pensamento. Busquei, em seguida, coletar todas as ocorrências de analogia que fui capaz de encontrar (e identificar enquanto tais) em meio aos livros de Simmel que mais teriam influenciado a sociologia (a saber: a Philosophie des Geldes e a Soziologie) construindo, assim, um índice abrangente para tais analogias. Finalmente, procurei analisar algumas das analogias coletadas em detalhe, mantendo o foco naquelas que, a meu ver, lançam alguma luz ou estão de algum modo relacionadas a outros traços fundamentais do pensamento sociológico e filosófico de Simmel. / In this study I deal with the role of analogical reasoning in the thought of Georg Simmel (1858-1918), one of the founders of German sociology. My aim here is to grasp the analogy-making as a key feature of Simmels social theory and epistemology. The first step in this direction can be summed up as a recollection of those fragments of the history of the analogy concept which most likely influenced Simmels thought. Secondly, I endeavored to collect all the instances of analogy that I could find (and identify as such) from those of his books which are deemed to be the most influential ones to sociology (viz., the Philosophie des Geldes and the Soziologie) elaborating, as a result, a broad index of such analogies. And finally I sought to analyze in minute detail some of the collected analogies, focusing on those which, on my view, shed light on or bear some relation to other key features of Simmels sociological and philosophical thought.

Este trabalho tem por objetivo analisar as concepções a respeito de átomos e elementos químicos, expressas pelo químico russo Dmitri I. Mendeleev (1834 - 1907). Para isso, recorremos a textos desse autor que foram traduzidos para o inglês, principalmente seu livro didático Principles of Chemistry, mas também os artigos \"An Attempt to Apply to Chemistry one of The Principles of Newton\"s Natural Philosophy\", (1889) e \"An Attempt towards a chemical conception of the ether\", (1902). No decorrer do século XIX, a hipótese atômica formulada por Dalton, e elaborada por outros químicos, ainda não era unanimemente aceita pela comunidade científica. Nesse contexto, observamos que Mendeleev se alinhava aos autores que tinham reservas quanto à realidade física dos átomos. Para compreender seus motivos, é importante considerar que os primeiros estudos científicos de Mendeleev se referiam aos chamados \"compostos indefinidos\", isto é, compostos que não obedeciam à lei das proporções múltiplas de Dalton. Mendeleev reconhecia que a hipótese atômica explicava uma série de fenômenos químicos, mas não era capaz de explicar os compostos indefinidos. Por outro lado, Mendeleev propôs uma clara distinção entre os conceitos de elemento químico e de corpo simples. Os elementos seriam entidades abstratas, portadoras da individualidade química, ideia considerada fundamental por Mendeleev e que o conduziu à formulação da lei periódica. Nos escritos analisados, Mendeleev fez uso, de maneira recorrente, da analogia entre o sistema solar e as moléculas. Nessa analogia, os planetas remetem à ideia de individualidade, essencial para a compreensão do conceito de elemento químico; mas, ao mesmo tempo, não remetem à ideia de indivisibilidade física - o ponto da hipótese atômica que por muito tempo foi objeto de descrença por parte de Mendeleev. / This work aims to analyze the concepts of atom and chemical elements, as presented in the writings of the Russian chemist Dmitri I. Mendeleev, (1834 - 1907). In this analysis were used English translations of Mendeleev\"s texts, especially his textbook Principles of Chemistry, but also the papers \"An Attempt to Apply to Chemistry one of The Principles of Newton\'s Natural Philosophy\", (1889) and \"An Attempt Towards a chemical conception of the ether\", (1902). During the nineteenth century, the atomic hypothesis, proposed by Dalton and elaborated by other chemists, was not unanimously accepted by the scientific community. In this context, one may note that Mendeleev was aligned with authors who had reservations about the physical reality of atoms. To understand his reasons, it is important to consider that the first scientific researches performed by Mendeleev were on the so-called indefinite compounds, that is, compounds that did not obey Dalton\"s law of multiple proportions. Mendeleev recognized that the atomic hypothesis explained a series of chemical phenomena, but it could not explain indefinite compounds. Moreover, Mendeleev proposed a clear distinction between the concepts of chemical elements and simple bodies. Elements were abstract entities with chemical individuality, a crucial idea to Mendeleev that led him to the proposition of the periodic law. In the analyzed texts, Mendeleev used, on a recurring basis, the analogy between the solar system and molecules. In this analogy, planets relate to the idea of individuality, which is essential to understand the concept of chemical element, but at the same time does not refer to the idea of physical indivisibility - the point of the atomic hypothesis that has long been subject to disbelief by Mendeleev.

Il faut reprendre à nouveaux frais la question de la métaphore, (re)définir les contours de la figure d'analogie, pour la sortir de la confusion où l'ont jetée la coupure instituée avec la comparaison et, plus largement, sa théorisation comme substitution d'un mot à un autre, mais aussi pour mettre à l'épreuve la notion de métaphore au cinéma. Il s'agit donc de questionner l'unité du « processus métaphorique », de trouver le bon niveau permettant de rendre compte de ses pouvoirs, de sa dynamique, et pour cela de refuser l'approche mutilante, sans cesse renaissante, de la rhétorique traditionnelle aussi bien que celles qui diluent sa richesse dans les mécanismes de l'inconscient ou les processus interprétatifs des seuls lecteurs ou spectateurs. La métaphore fait alors apparaître des traits qui indiquent à quel point il est légitime de discerner des formes iconiques à côté des formes linguistiques : elle peut notamment être comprise comme un montage d'expériences, de situations éprouvées, au moins fictivement. Pour arriver à cette conception de la métaphore comme dialogue entre séries d'objets de pensée, comme prédication paradoxale, il paraît nécessaire de renverser l'approche traditionnelle qui consiste à faire de la métaphore conventionnelle le modèle de la théorie, et de la métaphore vive un cas particulier, mais aussi d'interroger les liens entre métaphore, symbole et concept et de souligner comment, depuis Aristote, le modèle proportionnel, authentiquement analogique, est systématiquement écrasé par le modèle sémiotique. Ainsi rénovée, cette conception de la métaphore apparaît fructueuse pour l'analyse des œuvres, comme La Ligne Générale d'Eisenstein. / The question of the metaphor has to be analysed anew, the outlines of the figure of analogy (re)defined to escape the confusion arising from its separation from the simile and, more largely, its definition as a substitution of one word by the other, but also to test the notion of metaphor in the context of cinema. Therefore the unity of the “metaphoric process” has to be questioned, to find the right level permitting a recounting of its powers, of its dynamic, and doing so refusing the mutilating, always recurring approach of the traditional rhetoric, as well as those that dissolve its richness in the mechanisms of the unconscious or in the interpretative processes of solely the readers or viewers. The metaphor then lets traits appear that indicate to what extent it is legitimate to discern iconic forms along with linguistic forms : for example, it can be understood as an editing, a joining of experiences, of felt situations, at least in a fictional way. To reach this conception of the metaphor as a dialogue between two series of objects of thoughts, as the predication of a paradox, it appears necessary to overturn the traditional approach which consists in setting the conventional metaphor as the model of the theory and the live metaphor as the particular case, but also to think about the links between metaphor, symbol and concept, and to underline how, since Aristotle, the proportional model, the authentic analogical one, is systematically crushed by the semiotic model. Thus renewed, this conception of the metaphor seems fruitful for the analysis of works, for instance The General Line by Eisenstein.

A micro-world is described, in which many analogies involving strikingly different concepts and levels of subtlety can be made. The question "What differentiates the good ones from the bad ones?" is discussed, and then the problem of how to implement a computational model of the human ability to come up with such analogies (and to have a sense for their quality) is considered. A key part of the proposed system, now under development is its dependence on statistically emergent properties of stochastically interacting "codelets" (small pieces of ready-to-run code created by the system, and selected at random to run with probability proportional to heuristically assigned "urgencies"). Another key element is a network of linked concepts of varying levels of "semanticity", in which activation spreads and indirectly controls the urgencies of new codelets. There is pressure in the system toward maximizing the degree of "semanticity" or "intensionality" of descriptions of structures, but many such pressures, often conflicting, must interact with one another, and compromises must be made. The shifting of (1) perceived oundaries inside structures, (2) descriptive concepts chosen to apply to structures, and (3) features perceived as "salient" or not, is called "slippage". What can slip, and how are emergent consequences of the interaction of (1) the temporary ("cytoplasmic") structures involved in the analogy with (2) the permanent ("Platonic") concepts and links in the conceptual proximity network, or "slippability network". The architecture of this system is postulated as a general architecture suitable for dealing not only with fluid analogies, but also with other types of abstract perception and categorization tasks, such as musical perception, scientific theorizing, Bongard problems and others.

A <em>lexical analogy</em> is two pairs of words (<em>w</em>₁, <em>w</em>₂) and (<em>w</em>₃, <em>w</em>₄) such that the relation between <em>w</em>₁ and <em>w</em>₂ is identical or similar to the relation between <em>w</em>₃ and <em>w</em>₄. For example, (<em>abbreviation</em>, <em>word</em>) forms a lexical analogy with (<em>abstract</em>, <em>report</em>), because in both cases the former is a shortened version of the latter. Lexical analogies are of theoretic interest because they represent a second order similarity measure: <em>relational similarity</em>. Lexical analogies are also of practical importance in many applications, including text-understanding and learning ontological relations. <BR> <BR> This thesis presents a novel system that generates lexical analogies from a corpus of text documents. The system is motivated by a well-established theory of analogy-making, and views lexical analogy generation as a series of three processes: identifying pairs of words that are semantically related, finding clues to characterize their relations, and generating lexical analogies by matching pairs of words with similar relations. The system uses a <em>dependency grammar</em> to characterize semantic relations, and applies machine learning techniques to determine their similarities. Empirical evaluation shows that the system performs remarkably well, generating lexical analogies at a precision of over 90%.

A <em>lexical analogy</em> is two pairs of words (<em>w</em>₁, <em>w</em>₂) and (<em>w</em>₃, <em>w</em>₄) such that the relation between <em>w</em>₁ and <em>w</em>₂ is identical or similar to the relation between <em>w</em>₃ and <em>w</em>₄. For example, (<em>abbreviation</em>, <em>word</em>) forms a lexical analogy with (<em>abstract</em>, <em>report</em>), because in both cases the former is a shortened version of the latter. Lexical analogies are of theoretic interest because they represent a second order similarity measure: <em>relational similarity</em>. Lexical analogies are also of practical importance in many applications, including text-understanding and learning ontological relations. <BR> <BR> This thesis presents a novel system that generates lexical analogies from a corpus of text documents. The system is motivated by a well-established theory of analogy-making, and views lexical analogy generation as a series of three processes: identifying pairs of words that are semantically related, finding clues to characterize their relations, and generating lexical analogies by matching pairs of words with similar relations. The system uses a <em>dependency grammar</em> to characterize semantic relations, and applies machine learning techniques to determine their similarities. Empirical evaluation shows that the system performs remarkably well, generating lexical analogies at a precision of over 90%.