A utilização da terapia antiretroviral, atualmente mais amplamente acessível, implica na permanência da identificação da resistência viral e monitoramento da doença como itens importantes em adultos e pacientes pediátricos infectados pelo vírus da imunodeficiência humana tipo 1. Os principais marcadores da infecção por HIV-1, utilizados no monitoramento da infecção e curso da doença, são as contagens de células T CD4+ e a carga viral. Ambos são úteis como parâmetros indicadores para o início da terapia e na avaliação de sua eficácia. Além disto, a sua associação a testes de genotipagem para a identificação de mutações de resistência viral, pode auxiliar na indicação da conduta clínica mais adequada. No presente estudo, analisamos os valores da carga viral e taxas de linfócitos T CD4+ e CD8+ na avaliação do status imunológico de 25 crianças com indicação para a terapia antiretroviral, condicionando o regime terapêutico aos resultados do teste de genotipagem. A identificação dos subtipos virais foi feita por análise filogenética e a genotipagem incluiu a análise dos genes protease e transcriptase reversa do HIV-1. Dezoito amostras foram agrupadas no subtipo viral B e três no subtipo F1; cepas recombinantes também foram observadas, sendo uma BF, duas BD e uma DF. Dezoito crianças apresentaram mutações conferindo resistência viral aos inibidores da transcriptase reversa análogos de nucleosídeo e sete crianças apresentaram resistência aos inibidores não-análogos, com seis relatando resistência a nevirapina, delavirdina e efavirenz. Além disto, duas crianças, nas quais a terapia havia sido descontinuada dois a três anos antes da avaliação do teste de genotipagem, apresentaram as mutações K101E, K103N e G190A, conferindo resistência às três drogas. As mutações mais frequentes para o gene da transcriptase reversa foram observadas nos codons M41L, M184V e T215FY. Entretanto, dez crianças apresentaram relevante número de mutações de resistência viral, variando entre cinco a dez, que conferiram resistência a no mínimo quatro e até onze drogas antiretrovirais. Para o gene da protease, as mutações de resistência mais comuns foram observadas nos codons M46I, D30N e I54LV. Treze crianças apresentaram resistência viral a, no mínimo, duas e até 12 drogas. A adequação da terapia antiretroviral altamente potente (HAART), de acordo com o padrão de resistência viral, permitiu observar aumento dos valores de células T CD4+ em 12 dos 25 pacientes pediátricos, demonstrando melhoria na sua condição de imunodeficiência associada ao HIV. Decréscimos importantes da carga viral foram observados em 17 crianças, com níveis indetectáveis de RNA HIV alcançados em 13 delas, sendo 11 com linhagens virais resistentes a múltiplas drogas. O desenvolvimento de linhagens virais resistentes é uma das principais razões da falha terapêutica. Mesmo considerando outros fatores causais, tais como aderência, metabolismo e níveis adequados das drogas, a identificação do perfil de resistência viral é um importante fator na conduta para a adequação de esquemas terapêuticos, dando suporte ao uso racional das drogas antiretrovirais em programas de tratamento. / With antiretroviral therapy becoming more widely available nowadays, Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 resistance identification and monitoring of disease remains of great importance in adults and infected children. The major HIV-1 infection markers usually used for monitoring viral infection and disease course are CD4+ T cell counts or percentages and HIV viral load. Both of them are helpful indicating when to start therapy and evaluating its efficacy. Also, their association with genotyping tests to identify viral resistant mutations may help clinicians for the most adequate clinical conduct. In the present study, we assessed HIV-1 viral load and CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocyte rates for the immunological status evaluation of 25 antiretroviral-treated children managing therapeutic regimens according to genotyping test results. Drug resistance evaluation was done using genotyping covering protease and reverse transcriptase genes. Additionally, all of the 25 vertically HIV-1 infected children were assessed for viral subtyping throughout phylogenetic analysis. Eighteen samples clustered at B subtype and three clustered at F1 subtype; one BF, two BD and one DF recombinant strains were also observed. Eighteen children presented, at least, one mutation conferring resistance to the nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, and seven children presented resistance to the non-nucleoside inhibitors, with six resistant to all three drugs, nevirapine, delavirdine, and efavirenz. In addition, two children in whom the therapy had been discontinued two to three years before testing presented K101E, K103N, and G190A mutations conferring resistance to the all three drugs. Reverse transcriptase gene mutations were more frequently observed at codons M41L, M184V, and T215FY. However, ten children presented an important number of viral resistance mutations, ranging from five to ten mutations, conferring resistance to at least four to up to eleven antiretroviral drugs. Protease gene mutations were more frequently seen at codons M46I, D30N, and I54LV. Thirteen children presented viral resistance to at least two to up to twelve drugs. The management of the highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) according to viral resistance in our group of pediatric patients allowed an increase in CD4+ T cell counts and/or percentage in 12 of the 25 children, showing an improvement in their HIV-associated immunodeficiency status. Important viral burden declines were observed in 17 children, and HIV RNA undetectable levels were reached in 13 of them. Among these 17 children, 11 were multi-drug resistant. The development of resistant viral strains is one of the main reasons for failure of antiretroviral therapy. Even considering other causal factors such as compliance of the patient, metabolism of drugs and drug levels, viral resistance profile identification is an important factor in the management of therapeutic regimens, supporting the rational use of antiretroviral drugs by treatment programs.

Este estudo teve como objetivo analisar as crenças significativas para à adesão ou não dos trabalhadores de enfermagem, que sofreram acidentes do trabalho com exposição a material biológico, ao tratamento quimioprofilático com anti-retrovirais. Trata-se de numa pesquisa embasada no Modelo de Crença em Saúde- MCS, com abordagem de análise de dados quanti-qualitativa, efetuada por meio de cálculos percentuais (dados quantitativos) e análise de conteúdo, estabelecendo-se temas de análise estruturados nas categorias pré-definidas do MCS (dados qualitativos). Coletaram-se os dados utilizando-se entrevista semi-estruturada com registro escrito, dos dados fitos pelos próprios sujeitos, em formulário próprio, sendo todos trabalhadores de enfermagem de uma unidade de tratamento de doenças infecciosas de um hospital universitário do interior do estado de São Paulo. Os resultados encontrados revelaram, que dentre os 41 trabalhadores de enfermagem que compuseram a população estudada, 29 (70,74%) exerciam a função de auxiliar de enfermagem, 10 (24,39%) eram enfermeiros e 02 (4,87%) eram técnicos de enfermagem. O estudo mostrou que 20 (49 %) trabalhadores haviam sido vítimas de um ou até cinco acidentes do trabalho com exposição a material biológico, perfazendo a ocorrência de 38 acidentes. Em 12 (34,30%) casos o trabalhador realizou o tratamento completo com anti-retrovirais; em 15 ( 42,85%) trabalhadores não o completaram e em 8(22,85%) não emitiram informações a respeito. À luz do Modelo de Crenças em Saúde e das categorias preestabelecidas: suscetibilidade percebida, seriedade percebida, benefícios percebidos e barreiras percebidas, extraíram-se os seguintes indicadores: percepção do risco da infecção, comportamento vivenciado pelo acidentado, percepção de mudanças após o acidente, experiência positiva com o uso dos anti-retrovirais e percepção negativa com o uso dos anti-retrovirais.Os resultados revelaram que a principal crença que favoreceu a adesão ao tratamento quimioprofilático foi a suscetibilidade percebida, sendo fundamental para o trabalhador de enfermagem o pensamento acerca do risco de contrair a AIDS. A crença seriedade percebida foi identificada pelo medo de contrair a AIDS, preocupação com a transmissão, sensação de inferioridade.A determinação individual, a letalidade da doença, a ausência de efeitos colaterais e a crença na proteção oferecida pelo tratamento foram os benefícios percebidos pelos sujeitos para adoção de tratamento. Como principal barreira percebida para a nãoadesão do trabalhador ao tratamento, estão os efeitos colaterais ocasionados pelos fármacos, as exigências de horários rigorosos para a ingestão dos medicamentos e o descrédito da ameaça da doença. No estudo realizado evidenciou-se a necessidade em proporcionar atendimento ao trabalhador acidentado considerando seus os aspectos físicos e pessoais, bem como os emocionais, além da implementação de ações que minimizem a ocorrência de tais injúrias. / This study aimed to analyze significant beliefs among nursing workers who were victims of occupational accidents with exposure to biological material, with a view to adherence or not to chemoprophylactic treatment with antiretroviral medication. This research is based on the Health Belief Model-HBM, using a quanti-qualitative approach by means of percentage accounts for quantitative data, while treating qualitative data through content analysis and the establishment of analytical themes structured within the predefined categories of the HBM. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with nursing workers at an infectious disease treatment unit of a university hospital in the interior of São Paulo, Brazil, which were registered in writing. Results demonstrated that, out of the 41 nursing workers who made up the study population, 29 (70.74%) were nursing auxiliaries, 10 (24.39%) were nurses and 02 (4.87%) were nursing technicians. 20 (49 %) workers had been victims of one to five occupational accidents with exposure to biological material, totalling 38 accidents. In 12 (34.30%) cases, workers followed the complete treatment with antiretroviral medication, while they did not finish treatment in 15 (42,85%) cases and no information was published in 8 (22.85%) of the cases. In view of the Health Belief Model and the pre-established categories: perceived susceptibility, perceived gravity, perceived benefits and perceived obstacles, the following indices were extracted: infection risk perception, victim’s behavior, perception of changes after the accident, positive experience of using antiretroviral medication and negative perception of using antiretroviral medication. The results revealed that the main belief determining adherence to chemoprophylactic treatment was perceived susceptibility, considering the risk of getting AIDS as fundamental for nursing workers’ performance. The belief on perceived gravity was identified by the fear of getting AIDS, worries about the transmission, feeling of inferiority. The subjects perceived the following benefits: individual determination, lethality of the disease, absence of collateral effects and belief in the protection offered by treatment. The main obstacles perceived for workers’ non adherence to treatment were collateral effects caused by the medication, need for medication intake at strict times and discredit in the disease as a threat. This study disclosed the need to consider physical, personal and emotional aspects of worker casualties when delivering care to the workers and to implement actions that minimize the occurrence of these injuries.

Para fármacos administrados por via oral, o controle da extensão e da velocidade de absorção depende basicamente de duas importantes etapas: solubilidade do fármaco nos líquidos fisiológicos e sua permeabilidade através das membranas biológicas. Assim, o Sistema de Classificação Biofarmacêutica (SCB) foi proposto como uma ferramenta para o desenvolvimento de novos fármacos, de novas formulações e para auxiliar nos processos de bioisenção. No entanto, outro fator relacionado à biodisponibilidade e que deve ser considerado nos estudos biofarmacêuticos é o metabolismo. Desta forma, o Sistema de Classificação Biofarmacêutica de Distribuição de Fármacos (SCBDF) foi proposto com a finalidade de classificar os fármacos de acordo com suas características de solubilidade e de metabolismo de modo que seja possível avaliar e predizer o comportamento do fármaco in vivo. O metabolismo tem sido amplamente investigado, sobretudo as enzimas do citocromo P450, as quais estão presentes também nos enterócitos. Além disso, o SCBDF oferece um suporte quanto à avaliação dos mecanismos de permeabilidade envolvidos nos processos de absorção, interações fármaco-fármaco e interações fármaco-alimento. Assim, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo elucidar os mecanismos envolvidos na permeabilidade de fármacos antirretrovirais por meio dos modelos ex vivo (câmaras de difusão vertical tipo Franz) e in vitro (PAMPA, MDCK-MDR1 e microssomas) considerando os aspectos relacionados ao metabolismo intestinal e ao efluxo destes fármacos. Dada a importância da utilização de fármacos antirretrovirais na terapia medicamentosa contra a Síndrome da Imunodeficiência Adquirida (SIDA) e que estes medicamentos são normalmente administrados cronicamente, a compreensão dos mecanismos envolvidos na permeabilidade é de suma importância, uma vez que estes não estão totalmente esclarecidos e poucas informações são encontradas na literatura. Além disso, a biodisponibilidade de fármacos como estavudina, lamivudina e zidovudina indica variação na permeabilidade, necessitando de uma investigação científica mais aprofundada dos processos absortivos. Assim, segmentos de jejuno provenientes de ratos machos Wistar foram utilizados para a avaliação da permeabilidade intestinal dos referidos antirretrovirais considerando a avaliação de efluxo pela glicoproteína-P e o metabolismo intestinal pela CYP3A. De maneira complementar, estudos in vitro com o emprego de membranas artificiais paralelas (PAMPA) e culturas celulares de MDCK-MDR1 foram realizados com a finalidade de auxiliar na elucidação dos mecanismos de permeabilidade dos fármacos antirretrovirais. Além disso, a avaliação do metabolismo dos referidos fármacos foi realizada com o emprego de microssomas a fim de verificar se tais substâncias são substratos de enzimas da família CYP3A e, assim, verificar o impacto do metabolismo intestinal na absorção. Os resultados de permeabilidade obtidos em PAMPA foram: 0,74±0,11 x 10-6 cm/s para a estavudina, 0,25±0,12 x 10-6 cm/s para a lamivudina e 1,14±0,25 x 10-6 cm/s para a zidovudina. Já no modelo ex vivo com o emprego de câmaras de difusão vertical tipo Franz, os resultados foram: 1,56±0,32 x 10-5 cm/s para a estavudina, 1,26±0,27 x 10-5 cm/s para a lamivudina e 2,54±0,49 x 10-5 cm/s para a zidovudina. Portanto, com base nos resultados obtidos a partir dos dois métodos empregados, sugere-se que 30 outro mecanismo de transporte que não envolva a permeabilidade por difusão transcelular passiva possa estar relacionado à permeabilidade dos fármacos antirretrovirais. Com relação aos estudos de efluxo, os resultados obtidos a partir dos experimentos realizados em câmaras de difusão vertical tipo Franz demonstraram o aumento significativo da permeabilidade dos três antirretrovirais quando o inibidor de P-gp foi empregado, sendo: de 15,6 x 10-6 para 42,5 x 10-6 cm/s para a estavudina, de 12,6 x 10-6 para 37,5 x 10-6 cm/s para a lamivudina e de 25,4 x 10-6 para 56,6 x 10-6 cm/s para a zidovudina. Em culturas celulares MDCK-MDR1, os resultados de permeabilidade foram utilizados para a obtenção das razões entre as direções B→A e A→B. Os valores de Papp na condição inibida para os fármacos estudados apresentaram razão menor do que 1. Já a razão B→A/A→B para cada fármaco nos ensaios sem inibidor apresentou-se igual ou maior que 2, evidenciando a interação fármaco-transportador. Com base nisso, o modelo ex vivo com o emprego de segmentos intestinais em câmaras de difusão vertical tipo Franz apresentou-se adequado na avaliação do mecanismo de efluxo dos fármacos antirretrovirais, o que foi confirmado com os estudos realizados em MDCK-MDR1. Assim, os fármacos antirretrovirais estudados apresentaram interação significativa com a P-gp. Em relação aos estudos de metabolismo realizados em câmaras de difusão vertical tipo Franz, os resultados demonstraram grande variação na permeabilidade dos três antirretrovirais quando o inibidor de CYP3A foi empregado, sendo: de 15,6 x 10-6 para 23,5 x 10-6 cm/s para a estavudina, de 12,6 x 10-6 para 27,3 x 10-6 cm/s para a lamivudina e de 25,4 x 10-6 para 40,5 x 10-6 cm/s para a zidovudina. Já no modelo que emprega microssomas, os resultados de metabolização na ausência e na presença de inibidor de CYP3A foram: de 16,56% para 19,79% para a estavudina, de 14,56% para 15,55% para a lamivudina e de 17,85% para 16,48% para a zidovudina. Com base nisso, sugerese o emprego de microssomas para a determinação de metabolismo, uma vez que o método ex vivo empregado demonstrou grande variação entre os valores obtidos. Desta forma, observou-se que, para cada fármaco, não houve influência significativa no metabolismo pré-sistêmico relacionado às enzimas do complexo CYP3A, o que indica que a absorção oral das referidas substâncias não é limitada por tais enzimas. Portanto, a utilização dos diferentes métodos empregados no desenvolvimento do presente trabalho permitiu compreender os mecanismos envolvidos no transporte dos fármacos antirretrovirais, o que se torna de grande relevância nas etapas de desenvolvimento farmacêutico de novas moléculas e na compreensão de eventos clínicos ainda não esclarecidos atualmente. / For orally administered drugs, control of the extent and rate of absorption depends on two important steps: solubility of the drug in physiological liquids and their permeability across biological membranes. Thus, the Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) has been proposed as a tool for the development of new drugs, new formulations and aid in the biowaiver processes. However, another factor related to bioavailability that should be considered in biopharmaceutic studies is the metabolism. Thus, the Biopharmaceutics Drug Disposition Classification System (BDDCS) has been proposed for drug classification according to their solubility and metabolism characteristics, so it is possible to evaluate and predict the in vivo behavior of a compound. Metabolism has been extensively investigated, especially cytochrome P450 enzymes, which are also expressed in enterocytes. Besides, BDDCS provides support in evaluating the permeability mechanisms involved in the absorption processes, drug-drug interactions and drug-food interactions. Thus, the present study aimed to evaluate the mechanisms of permeability of antiretroviral drugs through the ex vivo (Franz cells) and in vitro (PAMPA, MDCK-MDR1 and microsomes) models considering aspects related to the intestinal metabolism and efflux of these drugs. Given the importance of the use of antiretroviral drugs in drug therapy against Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and that these drugs are usually administered in a long-term way, understanding the mechanisms involved in the permeability is of a great importance, since they are not totally elucidated and no information is found in the literature. In addition, drugs as stavudine, lamivudine and zidovudine indicate variation in the permeability, which require further scientific investigation of absorptive processes. Thus, jejunum segments from rats were used to evaluate the intestinal permeability of these antiretroviral drugs, considering the evaluation of efflux by P-glycoprotein and intestinal metabolism by CYP3A. In a complementary manner, in vitro studies using parallel artificial membranes (PAMPA) and cell cultures MDCK-MDR1 were performed to aid in the elucidation of the permeability mechanisms of antiretroviral drugs. Also, the evaluation of the metabolism was carried out using microsomes to verify if such substances are substrates of CYP3A, and verify the impact of the intestinal metabolism in the absorption. The permeability results obtained in PAMPA were: 0.74±0.11x10-6 cm/s for stavudine, 0.25±0.12x10-6 cm/s for lamivudine and 1.14±0.25x10-6 cm/s for zidovudine. In ex vivo method using the intestinal segments in Franz cells, the results were: 1.56±0.32x10-5 cm/s for stavudine, 1.26±0.27x10-5 cm/s for lamivudine and 2.54±0.49x10-5 cm/s for zidovudine. Thus, based on the results obtained from these two methods, it is suggested that the antiretroviral drugs present other transport mechanism that is different from transcellular passive diffusion. For efflux studies, results obtained from experiments performed in Franz cells shown the increase of the permeability of the three antiretroviral drugs when the P-gp inhibitor was used: from 15.6x10-6 to 42,5x10-6 cm/s for stavudine, from 12.6x10-6 cm/s to 37.5x10-6 cm/s for lamivudine, and 25.4x10-6 to 56.6x10-6 cm/s for zidovudine. In MDCK-MDR1, the permeability results were used for obtaining ratio values between the directions B→A and A→B. The Papp values obtained with 33 inhibitor shown a ratio less than 1. For ratio B→A/A→B for each drug in experiments without inhibitor, the values obtained was equal or greater than 2, which shows the interaction between drug and transporter. Based on that, the ex vivo model using intestinal segments in Franz cells seems to be adequate for evaluation of efflux mechanism of antiretroviral drugs, which was confirmed by MDCK-MDR1 studies. Thus, the antiretroviral drugs presented interaction with P-gp. For metabolism studies in intestinal segments in Franz cells, a wide range of standard deviation was observed for the three antiretroviral drugs when the CYP3A inhibitor was used: from 15.6x10-6 cm/s to 23.5x10-6 cm/s for stavudine, from 12.6x10-6 cm/s to 27.3x10-6 cm/s for lamivudine, and from 25.4x10-6 cm/s to 40.5x10-6 cm/s for zidovudine. In experiments in microsomes, the results of metabolization in the absence and presence of CYP3A inhibitor were: from 16.56 to 19.79% for stavudine, from 14.56 to 15.55% for lamivudine and from 17.85 to 16.48% for zidovudine. Based on that, it is suggested the use of microsomes for metabolism evaluation, since the ex vivo method presented high variability between the results obtained. For each drug, no significative influence in pre-systemic metabolism related to CYP3A enzymes was observed, which indicates that the oral absorption of the drugs is not limited by these enzymes. The use of different methods in this work allowed to understand the mechanisms involved in the transport of antiretroviral drugs, which is of a great relevance in drug development and in the understanding of clinical events currently not clarified.

A via de administração oral é a forma favorita de administração de fármacos em função das vantagens que apresenta, dentre elas destacam-se: a adesão do paciente, conveniência e praticidade. Em função disto, a maioria dos medicamentos comercializados encontra-se disponível na forma farmacêutica de administração oral, entretanto, o sucesso de um tratamento medicamentoso por esta via requer que a absorção gastrointestinal do fármaco seja suficiente para assegurar a sua disponibilidade no local de ação (VOLPE, 2010). No entanto, a absorção do fármaco no trato gastrointestinal é complexa e pode ser influenciada por vários fatores, os quais têm impacto sobre a dissolução, solubilidade e permeabilidade do fármaco. Com o intuito de aumentar a biodisponibilidade de fármacos, que possuem absorção dificultada pela via oral, a via de administração pela mucosa bucal vem sendo uma alternativa na atualidade farmacêutica. Esta mucosa é um tecido não queratinizado, altamente vascularizado e apresenta poucas enzimas metabolizadoras. Tais características possibilitam boa absorção de fármacos sem que ocorra a metabolização pré-sistêmica, ou efeito de primeira passagem, somando-se ao fato desta apresentar fácil acessibilidade para a administração de fármacos (VRIES, M. E et al., 1991; NIELSEN, H. M &RASSING, M. R, 1999). Nesse sentido, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a permeabilidade dos fármacos antirretrovirais (lamivudina e estavudina) por meio de modelo ex vivo em segmentos da mucosa bucal de suínos, com emprego de câmaras de difusão do tipo células de Franz. Para avaliação da permeabilidade bucal dos fármacos antirretrovirais, lamivudina e estavudina, e dos marcadores para transporte transcelular (metoprolol) e paracelular (fluoresceína sódica), empregou-se método ex-vivo, em células de Franz, com segmento de mucosa bucal de suíno ( a 37ºC, meio Ringer- Krebs- HEPES, pH 7,4), e Franz posterior análise das concentrações das substâncias permeadas (fármacos e marcadores) por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência. Os resultados obtidos, por meio do protocolo desenvolvido, demonstram que o transporte através da via paracelular (marcador fluoresceína) foi mais expressivo que o transporte transcelular (marcador metoprolol), o que provavelmente se deve ao fato dos espaços intercelulares da mucosa bucal serem mais frouxos do que aqueles observados na mucosa intestinal (junções íntimas). Quanto à lamivudina e estavudina, os resultados de permeabilidade indicaram que estes fármacos permearam por mecanismo semelhante ao do metoprolol, isto é, por via transcelular. / The oral route of administration is the preferred mode of administration of drugs according to the advantages which features, among which stand out: patient compliance, convenience and practicality. Because of this, most of the marketed drug is available in pharmaceutical form for oral administration, however, the success of a drug therapy in this way requires that the drug intestinal absorption is sufficient to ensure their availability at the site of action (VOLPE, 2010). However, the drug absorption in the gastrointestinal tract is complex and may be influenced by various factors which have an impact on the dissolution, solubility and permeability of the drug. In order to increase the bioavailability of drugs, which have impeded absorption by oral route of administration from oral mucosa has been an alternative the pharmaceutical today. This mucosa is not keratinized tissue, highly vascular and shows metabolizing enzymes. These characteristics allow good absorption of drugs occurs without presystemic metabolism or first-pass effect, adding to the fact that this display easy accessibility for the administration of drugs (Vries, M. E et al, 1991;. NIELSEN, H. M & RASSING, M. R, 1999). In this sense, this study aimed to evaluate the permeability of antiretroviral drugs (lamivudine and stavudine) through ex vivo model segments of the oral mucosa of pigs with use of diffusion chambers type Franz cells. To evaluate the oral permeability of antiretroviral drugs, lamivudine and stavudine, and markers for transcellular transport (metoprolol) and paracellular (sodium fluorescein), used ex-vivo method, Franz cells, with buccal mucosa segment of swine ( at 37, through Krebs-Ringer- HEPES, pH 7.4) and Franz subsequent analysis of concentrations of the permeated substances (drugs and markers) by high-performance liquid chromatography. The results obtained using the protocol developed demonstrate that transport through the paracellular pathway (marker fluorescein) was higher than that transcellular transport (marker metoprolol), which probably is due to the intercellular spaces of the oral mucosa are looser than those observed in the intestinal mucosa (tight junctions). The lamivudine and stavudine, the permeability results indicate that these drugs permeated by a mechanism similar to that of metoprolol, by transcellular pathway.

Les pharmacocinétiques de deux inhibiteurs de protéase, le lopinavir et l'atazanavir et celle d'un inhibiteur non nucléosidique de la transcriptase inverse, la névirapine, ont été étudiées chez l'enfant par une approche de population. Cette approche nous a permis d'étudier les différentes sources de variabilité pharmacocinétique de chaque molécule antirétrovirale. La prise en compte des relations concentration-effet précédemment établies chez l'adulte, nous a permis, concernant l'atazanavir et la névirapine, de ré-évaluer les recommandations posologiques chez l'enfant en termes d'efficacité et de toxicité. L'étude réalisée sur le lopinavir/ritonavir nous a conduits à comparer en termes de pharmacocinétique, d'efficacité et de tolérance, le changement de rythme d'administration de deux prises à une unique prise par jour. Les résultats obtenus ont mis en évidence dans les trois études une augmentation de la clairance et du volume de distribution apparents en fonction du poids. Pour l'atazanavir, il a été montré que la co-administration de ritonavir ou de ténofovir résulte respectivement en une diminution ou augmentation de sa clairance apparente. Pour la névirapine, un effet de l'âge sur sa biodisponibilité a été mis en évidence, la biodisponibilité relative augmentant avec l'âge. En conclusion, le changement de rythme d'administration du lopinavir/ritonavir s'est avéré être équivalent sur le plan pharmacocinétique, mais a résulté en une baisse de la proportion de patients présentant une charge virale indétectable. Les recommandations posologiques actuelles d'atazanavir/ritonavir pourraient mener à un sur-dosage pour l'intervalle de poids 32-50 kg. Les doses de névirapine recommandées par l'Organisation Mondiale de la Santé pourraient mener à un sous-dosage pour les enfants pesant entre 3 et 10 kg. / The pharmacokinetics of two protease inhibitors, lopinavir and atazanavir and that of a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, nevirapine, has been studied in children by a population approach. This approach allowed us to study the factors affecting the pharmacokinetic variability of each antiretroviral drug. Based on adult concentration-effect relationships, we evaluated the recommended dosage of atazanavir and nevirapine in children in terms of efficacy and toxicity. The study of lopinavir led us to compare in terms of pharmacokinetics, efficacy and safety, a switch from the twice-daily to the once-daily lopinavir/ritonavir regimen. These three studies showed that the apparent clearance and the apparent volume of distribution increased allometrically with body weight. For atazanavir, it was shown that co-administration of ritonavir or tenofovir resulted respectively in a decrease or increase of its apparent clearance. For nevirapine, an effect of age on its bioavailability was pointed out, the relative bioavailability increased with age. In conclusion, the switch of lopinavir/ritonavir regimen was found to be to be equivalent in terms of pharmacokinetics, but resulted in a decrease in the proportion of patients with undetectable viral load. Current dosing recommendations for atazanavir/ritonavir may lead to over-dosage for the body weight range 32-50 kg. Doses of nevirapine recommended by the World Health Organization could lead to under-dosing for children weighing between 3 and 10 kg.

The introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) has resulted in a significant decrease in the mortality and morbidity associated with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Several problems are associated with HAART and include high costs of treatments, poor availability of drugs in low-income countries, poor compliance, severe adverse effects and drug resistance. Therefore, the focus of current research is the development of new antiretroviral drugs, improved treatment strategies and the discovery of new drugs derived from plants. Green tea (GT) and its active constituent epigallocatechin gallate (EGCg) have been found to be protective against cancer, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases and were found also to have antimicrobial, antimalarial and more importantly antiviral activity. EGCg, in vitro has been shown to inhibit the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) viral enzymes reverse transcriptase and protease, destroy viral particles and interfere with the attachment of gp120 to cellular receptor CD4. The aims of this study were firstly to investigate the in vitro antiretroviral activity of GT and EGCg on the LP-BM5 defective murine leukemia virus (MuLV) that induces a disease in C57BL/6 mice similar to AIDS in humans and secondly to investigate the effects of GT and EGCg on the in vitro cytotoxicity and antiretroviral activity of current antiretroviral drugs zidovudine (AZT), indinavir (IDV), hydroxyurea (HU) and chloroquine (CQ). To achieve the above aims an in vitro model that represents cell-to-cell spreading of the LP-BM5 MuLV was developed. Firstly the presence of the LP-BM5-defective virus in the BM5 cell line was confirmed using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to identify viral particles, PCR and RT-PCR were used to determine the presence of viral DNA and RNA respectively and viral infectivity was confirmed in C57BL/10 mice. The cytotoxicity of each drug and combination was evaluated with the MTT assay in the SC-1 cell line, the predominant cell type in the in vitro cell culture model. GT was the least cytotoxic, followed by AZT, IDV, EGCg, HU and CQ. Co-cultures (BM5:SC-1, 1:10000) that represented cell-to-cell transmission of the virus were established. Real time PCR for proviral DNA revealed that IDV, AZT and HU completely suppressed, CQ dose dependently reduced while GT and EGCg had no effect on viral transmission. Findings using AZT and IDV thus validated the use of this in vitro co-culture model for first line screening of new drugs and plant extracts. The effect of GT or EGCg in combination with AZT, IDV, HU or CQ was also evaluated as GT or EGCg could enhance the antiretroviral effects or decrease cellular toxicity of these drugs. For GT with AZT a mix of synergism and antagonism on cell toxicity was observed with little to no effect on the antiretroviral activity of AZT. Antagonism on cell toxicity was observed for GT with IDV, with no effect on the antiretroviral activity of IDV. In contrast EGCg significantly reduced the antiretroviral activity of IDV. A strong antagonistic effect was observed for GT with HU, with GT reducing the antiretroviral effect of HU. For combinations of AZT with EGCg and HU with EGCg a similar effect was observed as for AZT and HU respectively combined with GT. Synergism in cytotoxicity was observed between GT and CQ associated with a significant decrease in viral loads while EGCg combined with CQ had an opposite effect at higher concentrations. In conclusion, the in vitro co-culture model of BM5 and SC-1 cells was successfully used to evaluate combinations of GT and EGCg with AZT, IDV, HU and CQ. Interesting and often contradicting effects were observed, such as seen for IDV in combination with GT and EGCg as well as CQ in combination with GT and EGCg. These effects may be of clinical relevance and further investigation is warranted. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2009. / Anatomy / unrestricted

L’importante diversité génétique des VIH-1 a conduit à la classification actuelle en 4 groupes - M, N, O et P - dont seul le premier est pandémique. Les VIH-1 non-M sont endémiques au Cameroun, mais circulent aussi en France, du fait de liens étroits entre les deux pays. Il a été largement démontré que la diversité génétique, en particulier des VIH-1/O, avait un impact sur les tests de dépistage sérologique et de quantification virale. En revanche, peu de données sont disponibles quant aux conséquences de cette diversité génétique sur la prise en charge thérapeutique des patients infectés. Il a été décrit in vitro que la présence naturelle de la mutation Y181C conduisait à une résistance naturelle aux inhibiteurs non nucléosidiques de la transcriptase inverse, et que le polymorphisme important de la protéase avait un impact au moins génotypique, sur l’utilisation de certaines molécules, limitant ainsi les options thérapeutiques ; d’autre part, la réponse immuno-virologique des patients aux antirétroviraux (ARV) est méconnue, du fait d’études anciennes et/ou réalisées sur un nombre limité de patients. Les objectifs de ce travail était donc i) d’étudier la sensibilité naturelle des VIH-1/non-M aux classes d’ARV les plus récentes ; ii) d’analyser la réponse immuno-virologique aux ARV d’un grand nombre de patients infectés par un VIH-1/O et chez l’unique patiente infectée par un VIH1/P actuellement suivie. En lien avec l’usage actuellement répandu des inhibiteurs d’intégrase (INI), nous avons montré sur un large panel de 39 isolats cliniques VIH-1 non-M, l’absence d’impact majeur du polymorphisme naturel de l’intégrase sur la sensibilité phénotypique au raltegravir et au dolutegravir mais une importante disparité des réponses phénotypiques avec l’elvitegravir, possiblement corrélée à l’association de 4 mutations sur l’intégrase (V72I, I200L, N222K et R224Q). Nous avons également établi que le polymorphisme génétique des variants non-M, avec la présence naturelle des mutations M426L, M434I et S375H/M de la gp120, variables selon les groupes, serait préjudiciable à l’efficacité du fostemsavir, représentant de la nouvelle classe des inhibiteurs d’attachement. Aussi, l’analyse de la réponse immuno-virologique aux ARV de 101 patients infectés par un VIH-1/O et vivant en France a permis de montrer que la réponse était globalement satisfaisante. En nous intéressant plus particulièrement aux patients recevant une trithérapie incluant un INI lors d’un échec ou d’un switch, nous avons observé un taux de succès virologique de 80 à 90%, résultats en cohérence avec nos données phénotypiques et en faveur des recommandations à utiliser largement de cette classe ; lors des échecs virologiques, l’émergence des mutations de résistance suivait, a minima, des voies de sélection similaires à celles décrites pour les VIH-1/M. Enfin, le suivi de la patiente RBF168 infectée par un VIH-1/P a été l’occasion de décrire pour la première fois, l’évolution naturelle de cette infection rare, l’excellente réponse immuno-virologique, mais aussi le polymorphisme génétique de cette souche singulière. Nous avons enfin étudié certaines des propriétés virologiques de la souche RBF168 en lien avec ses capacités d’adaptation à l’Homme.L’ensemble de nos travaux a contribué à obtenir des données sur l’impact du polymorphisme génétique des VIH-1 non-M aux nouvelles classes thérapeutiques et sur la réponse immuno-virologique des patients. Ces nouvelles connaissances permettront d’adapter en conséquence et d’améliorer, la prise en charge thérapeutique des patients infectés par ces variants divergents, aussi bien en France qu’en zone d’endémie. / The high genetic diversity of the HIV-1 leads to a classification in 4 distinct groups: M, N, O and lastly P, but only the first being pandemic. The non-group M HIV-1 (non-M HIV-1) are endemic in Cameroon, but are also found in France due to the close link between the two countries. The high genetic diversity, particularly for HIV-1/O, has an impact on the serological screening assay and the viral quantification. But, little is known about the consequences on the therapeutic management. In vitro, it has been shown that the Y181C mutation lead to the natural resistance of non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and the high level of polymorphism in the protease region had a genotypic impact on several drugs, restricting the therapeutic options. The immune-virological response to antiretroviral drugs (ARV) is also unknown, because of old studies and/or in a limited number of patients. Our aims were the study of the natural susceptibility of the non-M HIV-1 to the most recent class of ARV and the analysis of the immuno-virological response, in a large cohort of HIV-1/O-infected patients and the unique patient infected with an HIV-1/P still followed up. From the current usage of the new class of integrase strand transfer inhibitors (INSTI), we have demonstrated for the first time on a panel of 39 non-M HIV-1 clinical isolates, that i) the natural genetic integrase polymorphism has no major impact on the phenotypic susceptibility to raltegravir, dolutegravir ii) a wide disparity of phenotypic response to elvitegravir exists and could be correlated to the association of 4 mutations in the integrase (V72I, I200L, N222K and R224Q). We also showed that the non-M HIV-1 natural polymorphism, with the presence of the M426L, M434I and S375H/M on the gp120, according to the group, would be detrimental to the efficacy of fostemsavir, the representative of the emerging class of attachment inhibitors. Then, we analysed the immunological and virological response to ARV, of 101 patients HIV-1/O infected and living in France, in the ORIVAO ANRS EP50 study. This unique data on the largest cohort of patients, allowed us to demonstrate a good. Focusing on the patients receiving a combination including an INSTI (at a failure or in a switch), a high virological success rate was observed (around 80 to 90%), confirming our phenotypic results and arguing for a wide usage of this class. At a failure, the emergence of resistance mutations was, at least, not different from the one observed in HIV-1/M.Lastly, the unique monitoring of the RBF168 patient infected by an HIV-1/P strain, provided the opportunity to describe, for the first time, the natural evolution, the excellent immuno-virological response, the natural genetic polymorphism and this unique strain and to study some of its virological properties, linked with its adaptation to the Human host.All together, these data contribute to describe the impact of the natural genetic polymorphism of non-M HIV-1 on the new class of drugs, better characterize the immune-virological response and finally allow to adapt the therapeutic management of the infected patients in France as well as in the endemic area.

No description available.

The objective of this study was to assess levels of HAART adherence and factors affecting it. An observational, analytic, cross-sectional and quantitative study using IMB model was conducted on a randomly selected 349 HIV/AIDS patients on a HAART regimen. Data collection was done by interviewing respondents using a structured questionnaire. Both descriptive and inferential statistics used in the study. Only 80.2% of the total sample population reported a HAART adherence rate of more than or equal to 95% in this study. The findings highlight the need for on-going educational, informational and other interventions to address the knowledge, motivation and adherence behavioural skills of patients in order to improve the current levels of HAART adherence behaviour. The study also suggested the need for research into objective measures of adherence as well as longitudinal studies on adherence behaviour because strict adherence to treatment is a long-term process and not a one-time activity. / Health Studies / M.A. (Public health)

HIV antiretroviral therapy spans several different drug classes, meant to combat various aspects of viral infection and replication. Many authors have argued the benefits of therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) for the HIV patient including compliance assurance and assessment of appropriate drug concentrations; however, the array of drug chemistries and combinations makes TDM an arduous task. HPLC-UV and LC-MS/MS are both frequent instruments for the quantification of HIV drugs in biological matrices with investigators striving to balance sensitivity and affordability. Plasma, the dominant matrix for these analyses, is prepared using protein precipitation, liquid-liquid extraction or solid-phase extraction depending on the specific complement of analytes. Despite the range of polarities found in drug classes relevant to HIV therapeutics, most chromatographic separations utilize a hydrophobic column (C18 ). Additionally, as the clinically relevant samples for these assays are infected with HIV, along with possible co-infections, another important aspect of sample preparation concerns viral inactivation. Although not routine in clinical practice, many published analytical methods from the previous two decades have demonstrated the ability to conduct TDM in HIV patients receiving various medicinal combinations. This review summarizes the analytical methods relevant to TDM of HIV drugs, while highlighting respective challenges.