Background Isometric strength training (IST) involves contracting a muscle or muscle group without anyjoint movement, resulting in static exertion. This method has garnered attention in recentyears as an alternative approach for enhancing performance and rehabilitating injuries.Overcoming isometrics (OI), a specific type of isometric exercise, entails pushing against animmovable object. Despite its potential benefits, scientific literature on the effects of OI onathletic performance remains limited. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigatethe impact of overcoming isometrics on strength, power, and jump height. Method Eight elite female football players (15-17 years old), competing in the Swedish championshipfor girls aged 17, participated in this study. The participants were divided into two groupsprior to the intervention: a training group and a control group. The training group performedovercoming isometrics for four weeks, while the control group followed a mobility protocol.To assess the participants' strength, power, and jump height, three tests were conducted bothbefore and after the intervention: trap bar 1RM, box squat, and countermovement jump(CMJ). The Shapiro-Wilk test was used to determine if the data were normally distributed,followed by an independent samples t-test to analyze any significant differences between thegroups. Results The results showed no significant differences between the groups for the box squat (p =0,086) and trap bar 1RM (p = 1,000). However, the CMJ yielded significantly better resultsfor the training group in comparison to the control group (p = 0,004). Conclusion The findings of this study indicate that overcoming isometrics improves jump height.However, it appears to have no significant effects on strength and power. Keywords: Youth sports, resistance training, athletic performance, linear encoder, PhotonSports

Based on bioecological and cultural historical approaches, the aims of this study were to identify and explore ecological factors influencing the environment’s success in developing talented male football players, to identify and explore ecological conditions associated with becoming a professional football player, and to present a qualitatively derived ecological framework of the environmental conditions associated with becoming a professional football player. It followed a shift in research attention from the individual athlete to the environment in which he or she develops. A cultural praxis framework was adopted as a guiding principle and a single case study was used as a methodological approach. A successful talent development environment was the case under study, from which 17 participants were approached for data collection. The participants numbered ten young talented footballers, five of their parents and two of their coaches. Data was collected via individual open-ended and semi-structured interviews which were supplemented through unstructured observations, transcribed verbatim and analysed using thematic analysis with the focus on positive factors congruent with successful developmental outcomes. The results revealed how the developing players as active participants in their talent development process interacted with contextual factors associated with successful talent development and outline. Based on the data analysis, an empirical conceptual framework of factors playing a role in talent development is proposed. / Psychology of Education / D. Ed. (Psychology of Education)

The study collected occupational data from the 99 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I membership institutions head athletic directors. The purpose of this study was to identify common professional preparation and occupational characteristics among NCAA Division I athletic directors. Through issuing an electronic survey, the current study identified common characteristics and themes among Division I athletic directors specifically within the socio-demographical background, educational background, professional experience and career progression, and career and job satisfaction. The study also provided demographic information about the participant’s institutional athletic department. The necessity of this study is not due directly to the current lack of current literature and research within the collegiate administration, rather in reference to literature examining the athletic administration occupational field. The study provides an occupational framework in regards to the career progression, training, and characteristics of NCAA Division I athletic director career field. The study’s purpose was to examine the career growth of NCAA Division I athletic directors, as well as evaluate the demographic and socio-demographics characteristics of the NCAA Division I athletic director. The research and data collected from the study’s participants provided the author the opportunity to create a profile of the athletic administration career field and more specifically, the detailed qualities sought in a NCAA Division I athletic director. The results from the study are beneficial to aspiring persons that wish to work in the field of collegiate athletics administration by correlating common occupational framework for educational requirements, professional experience and years necessary to gather the appropriate experience and also to identify an overview of the job and career satisfaction common among current NCAA Division I athletic directors. In doing so, the study utilized homosocial reproduction as its theoretical framework. The study’s results concluded that the field of athletic administration, and specifically NCAA Division I athletic directors are disproportionally white males (89% white, 90% male), and further examined the educational and professional background characteristics and experiences which lead to this occupational characteristic.

The purpose of this study was to examine the differences of student-athletes' preferred leadership behavior for their coaches based on gender, competition level, task dependence, and task variability. Four hundred and eight male and female student-athletes from four NCAA Division I and six Division II universities expressed their preferences using the Revised Leadership Scale for Sport (RLSS) (Zhang, Jensen, & Mann, 1997). The preference version of the RLSS included six behavior dimensions, autocratic, democratic, positive feedback, situational consideration, social support, and training and instruction behaviors. A split-plot ANOVA was performed on the individual preference scores grouped by gender, competition level, task dependence, and task variability for the six dimensions of coaching behavior. The ANOVA also computed interactions. Fisher's LSDs were performed on all significant interactions. Among genders, the ANOVA demonstrated a significant gender by level interaction for democratic behavior. Fisher's LSD failed to detect any significant interactions. Among competition levels, the ANOVA demonstrated a significant task dependence by level interaction for autocratic behavior. Division I independent sport student-athletes had significantly higher preferences than Division II independent sport student-athletes. A significant task variability by level interaction revealed Division I open sport student-athletes had significantly greater preferences for autocratic behavior than did Division II open sport student-athletes. The results also demonstrated a significant task dependence by level interaction for democratic behavior. Division I independent sport student-athletes showed significantly greater preferences for democratic behavior than Division I interdependent sport student-athletes and Division II independent sport student-athletes showed significantly greater preferences than did Division II interdependent sport student-athletes. Independent sport student-athletes, regardless of gender or competition level, showed significantly greater preferences for democratic, positive feedback, situational consideration, and social support behaviors. The results also indicated a significant task variability by level interaction for autocratic behavior. Division I open sport student-athletes had significantly greater preferences for these coaching behaviors than Division I closed sport student-athletes. Open sport student-athletes, regardless of gender or competition level, had significantly greater preferences for democratic, positive feedback, and social support behaviors. The results demonstrate support for a portion of the multidimensional model of leadership (Chelladurai, 1979; 1990) with differences in behavior preferences based on student-athlete characteristics of competition level, task dependence, and task variability. The results may aid in the evaluation of coaching behavior and coaching method and in defining training preparation programs that would enhance the congruence between student-athlete behavior preferences and actual coaching behaviors. The results suggest the use of the multidimensional model of leadership and the related instruments for future investigations of sport leadership behavior.

The purpose of this study was to investigate and compare knowledge and attitudes of directors of athletics and head trainers in the Southwest (Division 1A) and the Southland (Division 1AA) Conferences concerning HIV/AIDS issues related to transmission, prevention, and protection within college athletics programs. The results of this qualitative study provided descriptive data from university administrators within the athletics setting who are responsible for providing adequate student athlete health care services from developed and implemented administrative policies that directly or indirectly affect a student athlete's physiological and psychological well-being.

This study was a continuation of previous research by Stambulova et al., (manuscript submitted; Lundell-Olsson & Pehrson, 2014), with the purpose to validate and update the empirical model ”Phases in the Junior-to-Senior Transition in Swedish Ice Hockey Players”. The objectives of the study were to (1) to collect opinions and reflections of expert senior players and coaches about the empirical model as a whole and about content of each JST phase and (2) to update the empirical model based on the participants’ feedback. Fifteen Swedish professional ice hockey players and coaches were recruited for focus groups and interviews and data were collected regarding their opinions of the empirical model. The results supported (a) the sequence of phases, (b) the titles and duration of the model, and (c) the psychological content in terms of perceived demands, resources, barriers, coping strategies, and outcomes, was updated. Five themes’ names were changed and sixteen new themes were added. Based on the empirical models confirmation and suggested updates, the validated model ”Phases in the Junior-to-Senior Transition in Swedish Ice Hockey Players” was created. The results of the study are discussed in relation to theoretical frameworks, previous research, methodology, future research, and applications. / Denna studie var en fortsättning på tidigare studie av Stambulova et al., (manuskript inskickat; Lundell-Olsson & Pehrson, 2014) med syfte att validera och uppdatera den empiriska modellen ”Faser i övergången från junior till senior hos Svenska ishockeyspelare”. Målet med studien var (1) att samla in åsikter och reflektioner från erfarna seniorspelare och tränare kring den empiriska modellen som helhet och varje fast i övergången från junior till senior, samt att (2) uppdatera den empiriska modellen grundat på deltagarnas feedback. För att uppnå detta så rekryterades femton professionella svenska ishockeyspelare och tränare som deltog i fokusgrupper och intervjuer och data samlades in kring deras åsikter om den empiriska modellen. Resultaten stödde (a) sekvensen av faser, (b) dess titlar och varaktighet och (c) det psykologiska innehållet i form av krav, barriärer, resurser, copingstrategier och utfall. Fem temans namn ändrades och sexton ny tillkom. Baserat på resultaten ansågs den empiriska modellen validerad och uppdaterade i en validerad modell ”Faser i övergången från junior till senior hos Svenska ishockeyspelare”. Resultaten diskuteras vidare i relation till teoretiska ramverk, tidigare forskning, metodologi, framtida forskning, och tillämpbarhet.

Thesis (PhDSportwet)--Stellenbosch University, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of participation in a special squad-based talent development programme on selected physical variables and skills in adolescent girls. This investigation was initiated in the team sport of netball in order to determine if participation in a talent development programme of this kind can be successful in the South African context. A second purpose was to consider the effectiveness of the squad-based model in relation to the traditional school-based model that is commonly implemented for talent development in South African netball. This study followed a static group design in a field setting. The squad-based group (N=22) was composed of netball players ages 14 – 18 years old from two senior high schools in a previously disadvantaged community. The school-based group (N=45) was composed of netball players from the first and second teams at three schools in the same region, that maintained a good standard of netball and had qualified coaches. The subjects in the squad-based group participated in a special eight-month training programme, which consisted out of 2 training sessions (90minutes) and 1 match per week. The subjects in the school-based group participated in their normal pattern of netball practices and school matches. The results of this study lead to some general conclusions about the squadbased training model: • Four components of skill development improved significantly • Significant changes were found in four of the physical variables associated with netball performance. • The squad-based model appeared to have been significantly more effective than the school-based model in the development of the physical variables of flexibility, speed, throwing velocity and aerobic fitness.Based on the results the squad-based model is proposed as an approach to talent development that can make a significant contribution to the development of skill. Continuous refinement of current models and even the creation of new models, may one day create systems where every child can reach toward his or her own sporting potential. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie behels die deelname van ‘n geselekteerde oefengroep adollessente meisies aan ‘n talentontwikkelingsprogram. Die doel van die studie was om die invloed van deelname aan sodanige program op gekose fisiek- en vaardigheidskomponente na te gaan. Netbal, as ‘n spansport, is gebruik om te bepaal of hierdie tipe talentontwikkelingsprogramme suksesvol in die huidige Suid- Afrikaanse konteks kan wees. ‘n Verdere doelwit was om die effektiwiteit van hierdie oefengroepmodel teenoor die meer tradisionele skoolgebaseerde-model, wat tans algemeen in Suid-Afrikaanse netbal toegepas word, na te gaan. Die studie het ‘n statiese-groepontwerp gevolg in ‘n veldtoetsing omgewing. Die oefengroep (N=22) het bestaan uit netbalspeelsters tussen die ouderdomme 14-18 jaar, van twee senior hoërskole vanuit die agtergeblewe gemeenskappe. Die skoolgebaseerde groep (N=45) het bestaan uit speelsters van die eerste en tweede netbalspanne van drie skole in dieselfde streek. Hierdie drie skole beskik oor gekwalifiseerde afrigters en handhaaf ‘n hoë speelstandaard. Die speelsters van die oefengroep het aan ‘n spesiale agtmaande oefenprogram deelgeneem, met twee oefensessies per week (90 minute) asook een wedstryd per week. Die netbalspeelsters in die skoolgebaseerde-program het hulle normale oefenpatroon gevolg en aan skoolwedstryde deelgeneem. Die resultate van hierdie studie het gelei tot sekere algemene gevolgtrekkings omtrent die geselekteerde oefengroepmodel: • Vier komponente van die spelvaardighede het statisties beduidend verbeter. • Beduidende statistiese veranderinge is waargeneem in vier van die fisieke komponente wat met netbal geassosieer word. • Dit blyk dat die oefengroepmodel statisties meer effektief was in die onwikkeling van fisieke komponente soos lenigheid, spoed, aerobiese fiksheid en spoed van gooie, as die skoolgebaseerde oefengroep.Gebaseer op die resultate van die oefengroepmodel, kan hierdie benadering tot ontwikkeling ‘n beduidende verskil maak in die ontwikkeling van netbalvaardighede. Verdere verfyning van huidige talentontwikkelinsgmodelle, mag in die toekoms aanleiding gee tot bruikbare sisteme waar elke deelnemer die kans gegun sal word om sy sportpotensiaal te bereik.

Thesis (M Sport Sc (Sport Science))--Stellenbosch University, 2005. / Talent identification has been defined as the process by which children are measured on a number of physical and performance variables that are perceived to be a requisite for success within a given sport (Abbott & Collins, 2002:158). One important element in talent identification testing is the capacity to interpret scores. This requires the development of relevant norms for the populations groups who will be involved. The purpose of this study was to generate norms for the interpretation of scores earned by children with disabilities on a basic talent identification screening test battery. The study was focused only on children with intellectual impairments, children with hearing impairments and children with visual impairments. The Talent Search test battery as prescribed by DISSA (Disability Sport South Africa, 2002) found in their screening manual for basic sporting ability of persons with disabilities was used to assess subjects on performance variables. This included body height, sitting height, arm span, body mass, eye-hand coordination, sound localization and eye- hand coordination (for the those with VI), upper body power, leg power, agility, running speed and aerobic fitness (cardiovascular endurance). The group of 140 subjects included 49 children with intellectual impairments (N=27 males and N=22 females), 58 children with hearing impairments (N=35 males and N=23 females) and 33 children with a visual impairment of which 11 (N=7 males and N=4 females) needed to run with a guide and 22 (N=17 males and N=5 females) where independent runners. The descriptive data was processed to produce percentile tables. One problem area was found with testing the eye-hand coordination of children with intellectual impairment, where more than 50% of the children were not able to obtain a score at all. It was also found that some children with hearing impairments had slow running times for the agility run test item, which led to the conclusion that vestibular etiology must be identified prior to the interpretation of test scores.

One of the most meaningful technical innovations in cycling over the past two decades was the development of mobile power meters. With the ability to measure the physical strain under “real world” outdoor conditions, the knowledge of the demand during cycling has improved enormously. Power output has been described as the most direct measure of intensity during cycling and consequently power meters becomes a popular tool to monitor the training and racing of cyclists. However, only limited research data are available on the utilisation of power meters for performance assessment in the field or the analysis of training data. Therefore, the aims of the thesis were to evaluate the ecological validity of a field test, to provide an extensive insight into the longitudinal training strategies of world-class cyclists and to investigate the effects of interval training in the field at difference cadences. The first study aimed to assess the reproducibility of power output during a 4-min (TT4) and a 20-min (TT20) time-trial and the relationship with performance markers obtained during a laboratory graded exercise test (GXT). Ventilatory and lactate thresholds during a GXT were measured in competitive male cyclists (n = 15; VO2max 67 ± 5 mL . min−1 . kg−1; Pmax 440 ± 38 W ). Two 4- min and 20-min time-trials were performed on flat roads. Strong intraclass-correlations for TT4 (r = 0.98; 95 % CL: 0.92-0.99) and TT20 (r = 0.98; 95 % CL: 0.95-0.99) were observed. TT4 showed a bias ± random error of −0.8 ± 23W or −0.2 ± 5.5%. During TT20 the bias ± random error was −1.8 ± 14 W or 0.6 ± 4.4 %. Both time-trials were strongly correlated with performance measures from the GXT (p < 0.001). Significant differences were observed between power output during TT4 and GXT measures (p < 0.001). No significant differences were found between TT20 and power output at the second lactate-turn-point (LTP 2) (p = 0.98) and respiratory compensation point (RCP) (p = 0.97). In conclusion, TT4 and TT20 mean power outputs are reliable predictors of endurance performance. TT20 was in agreement with power output at RCP and LTP 2. Study two aimed to quantify power output (PO) and heart rate (HR) distributions across a whole season in elite cyclists. Power output and heart rate were monitored for 11 months in ten male (age: 29.1 ± 6.7 y; VO2max: 66.5 ± 7.1 mL . min−1 . kg−1) and one female (age: 23.1y; VO2max: 71.5 mL . min−1 . kg−1) cyclist. In total, 1802 data sets were sampled and divided into workout categories according to training goals. The PO at the RCP was used to determine seven intensity zones (Z1-Z7). PO and HR distributions into Z1-Z7 were calculated for all data and workout categories. The ratio of mean PO to RCP (intensity factor, IF) was assessed for each training session and for each interval during the training sessions (IFINT). Variability of PO was calculated as coefficient of variation (CV ). There was no significant difference in the distribution of PO and HR for the total season (p = 0.15), although significant differences between workout categories were observed (p < 0.001). Compared with PO, HR distributions showed a shift from low to high intensities. IF was significantly different between categories (p < 0.001). The IFINT was related to performance (p < 0.01), although the overall IF for the session was not. Also, total training time was related to performance (p < 0.05). The variability in PO was inversely associated with performance (p < 0.01). In conclusion, HR accurately reflects exercise intensity over a total season or low intensity workouts but is limited when applied to high intensity workouts. Better performance by cyclists was characterised by lower variability in PO, greater training volume and the production of higher exercise intensities during intervals. The third study tested the effects of low-cadence (60 rev . min−1) uphill (Int60) or high-cadence (100 rev . min−1) flat (Int100) interval training on PO during 20 min uphill (TTup) and flat (TTflat) time-trials. Eighteen male cyclists (VO2max: 58.6 ± 5.4 mL . min−1 . kg−1) were randomly assigned to Int60, Int100 or a control group (Con). The interval training comprised of two training sessions per week over four weeks, which consisted of 6 bouts of 5 min at the PO at RCP. For the control group, no interval training was conducted. A two-factor ANOVA revealed significant increases on performance measures obtained from GXT (Pmax: 2.8 ± 3.0 %; p < 0.01; PO and VO2 at RCP: 3.6 ± 6.3 % and 4.7 ± 8.2 %, respectively; p < 0.05; and VO2 at ventilatory threshold: 4.9 ± 5.6 %; p < 0.01), with no significant group effects. Significant interactions between group and the uphill and flat time-trials, pre vs. post-training on time-trial PO were observed (p < 0.05). Int60 increased PO during both, TTup (4.4 ± 5.3 %) and TTflat (1.5 ± 4.5 %), whereas the changes were − 1.3 ± 3.6 %; 2.6 ± 6.0 % for Int100 and 4.0 ± 4.6 %; − 3.5 ± 5.4 % for Con, during TTup and TTflat, respectively. PO was significantly higher during TTup than TTflat (4.4 ± 6.0 %; 6.3 ± 5.6 %; pre and post-training, respectively; p < 0.001). These findings suggest that higher forces during the low-cadence intervals are potentially beneficial to improve performance. In contrast to the GXT, the time-trials are ecologically valid to detect specific performance adaptations.

<p>Povrede adolescenata predstavljaju rastući javno zdravstveni problem. Iako fizička aktivnost ima dokazanu vi&scaron;estruku korist po zdravlje pojedinca, ona je povezana sa rizikom od povreda, posebno u zemljama sa nedovoljno razvijenim strategijama za prevenciju istih. Cilj istraživanja bio je da se utvrdi povezanost između intenzivne fizičke aktivnosti i povreda, da li nivo fizičke aktivnosti utiče na rizično i protektivno pona&scaron;anje adolescenata, i da se identifikuju okolnosti i okruženje u kom se povrede najče&scaron;će de&scaron;avaju. Za istraživanje je kori&scaron;ćena retrospektivno-prospektivna kohortna studija na odabranom uzorku adolescenata od 15-19 godina koji pohađaju srednju &scaron;kolu. Putem standardnog internacionalnog upitnika o fizičkoj aktivnosti IPAQ i dobijenog MET skora, izdvojen je deo kohorte adolescenata izložen intenzivnoj fizičkoj aktivnosti. Kontrolnu grupu činili su umereno fizički aktivni i neaktivni adolescenti. U periodu od 12 meseci registrovane su sve vrste povreda adolescenata putem upitnika o povredama. Povrede koje su zahtevale medicinski tretman registrovane su kroz zdravstvenu dokumentaciju &scaron;kolskog dispanzera, sportske ambulante doma zdravlja, hitne medicinske pomoći i urgentnog odeljenja op&scaron;te bolnice. Klasifikacija i analiza podataka o povredama izvr&scaron;ena je prema prirodi povreda (S00-T98) na osnovu Međunarodne klasifikacije bolesti (MKB-10, 1996.). Rizik za povrede bio je sedam puta veći u grupi intenzivno fizički aktivnih adolescenata u odnosu na kontrolnu grupu (RR: 7,041; 95%CI: 6,071; 8,187). Rizik za povrede koje su zahtevale medicinski tretman, prema rezultatima prikupljenim u zdravstvenim ustanovama, bio je 15 puta veći kod adolescenata koji se intenzivno bave fizičkom aktivno&scaron;ću (RR: 14,717; 95%CI: 10,652; 20,592). Fizički aktivni učenici su se najvi&scaron;e povređivali na sportskim terenima, dok su se umereno aktivni i neaktivni najče&scaron;će povređivali u kućnom okruženju. Rizik da zadobiju sportske povrede bio je 11 puta veći kod fizički aktivnih ispitanika (RR: 11,212; 95%CI: 9,013; 14,074), sa značajno vi&scaron;om stopom incidencije kod mu&scaron;karaca (82,9/100). Na treningu i utakmici povrede je zadobilo 85,2% fizički aktivnih adolescenata, dok su kod umereno aktivnih i neaktivnih sportske povrede najče&scaron;će registrovane u &scaron;kolskom okruženju (37,5%). Najvi&scaron;e povreda registrovano je u fudbalu (Inc. 4.44/1000 h), odbojci (Inc. 3.92/1000 h) i boksu/kik boksu (Inc. 3.75/1000 h). Intenzitet fizičke aktivnosti nije imao uticaja na smanjenje rizičnog pona&scaron;anja kod adolescenata, kao &scaron;to je kori&scaron;ćenje alkohola, psihoaktivnih supstanci i nasilno pona&scaron;anje. Nivo protektivnog pona&scaron;anja bio je generalno nizak u obe grupe ispitanika. Kori&scaron;ćenje za&scaron;titne kacige i za&scaron;titne sportske opreme bilo je značajno zastupljenije u grupi intenzivno fizički aktivnih adolelescenata, ali nije utvrđen njihov uticaj na smanjenje rizika od povreda.</p> / <p>Injuries among adolescents represent growing public health issue. Although physical activity provides proven multiple benefits to the health of individuals, it is also associated with a risk of injuries, particularly in countries with less developed strategies for their prevention. The objective of the research was to determine the relation between vigorous physical activity and injuries, whether the level of physical activity affects the risk and protective behaviour among adolescents, and to identify the circumstances and environment in which the injuries most often occur. The research used a retrospective-prospective cohort study on a selected sample of adolescents aged 15-19 years attending secondary school. The part of the cohort of adolescents exposed to vigorous physical activity was separated through the standard international questionnaire on physical activity IPAQ and the resulting MET score. The control group consisted of moderately physically active and inactive adolescents. All types of injuries among adolescents within the 12 months were registered through a questionnaire. Injuries requiring medical treatment were registered through the health records of school and sports ambulances, emergency medical services and Emergency Department of the General Hospital. Classification and analysis of injury data was performed according to the nature of the injuries (S00 - T98) based on the International Classification of Diseases (ICD - 10, 1996). The risk of injury was seven times higher in the group of vigorous physically active adolescents than in the control group (RR: 7,041; 95%CI: 6,071; 8,187). The risk of injuries that required medical treatment was 15 times higher among adolescents who are intensively engaged in physical activity (RR: 14,717; 95%CI: 10,652; 20,592). Physically active students are most frequently injured on the sports fields, while moderately active and inactive students are most frequently injured in the home environment. The risk to suffer sports injuries was 11 times higher among physically active participants (RR: 11,212; 95%CI: 9,013; 14,074) with a significantly higher incidence rate among men (82,9/100). On training and during the game 85,2% of physically active adolescents suffered from injuries, while among inactive participants sports injuries were most often registered in the school environment (37,5%). The most injuries were registered in soccer (Inc. 4.44/1000 h), volleyball (Inc. 3.92/1000 h) and boxing/kick boxing (Inc. 3.75/1000 h). The intensity of physical activity had no impact on reducing risk behaviour among adolescents, such as the use of alcohol, psychoactive substances and violent behavior. The level of protective behavior was generally low in both groups. The use of protective helmets and protective sports equipment was significantly more frequently present among vigorous physically active adolescents, but their influence on reducing the risk of injuries was not determined.</p>