The purpose of this study was to investigate young people’s environmental attitudes in India. The study had a special focus on the factor of exposure to nature and nature degradation in environmental attitudes formation. Attitudes are of a great importance in education. The investigation was conducted using a qualitative method based on observations and in depth interviews. The subjects were selected from a village in northern India and from Delhi, which is the capital of India. The subjects from the village area were exposed to nature and nature degradation in their daily lives and were expected to have biocentric or eco-centric environmental attitudes (to view humans as part of nature). In addition, Indian traditions and religions were expected to be more preserved in this area compared to Delhi. Hinduism, which is the dominant religion in India, is considered biocentric. In contrast, the subjects from Delhi were not exposed to nature and nature degradation daily and were expected to have anthropocentric or late anthropocentric environmental attitudes (to view humans as separated from nature). Also, these subjects were greatly influenced by industrialization and western influences. Western religions and cultures are considered anthropocentric. The results indicated a difference in environmental attitudes between the subjects in the village area who were exposed to nature and nature degradation and the subjects in Delhi, who were not. The subjects in the village area tended to have a biocentric or eco-centric view on nature and the subjects from Delhi tended to have a late anthropocentric view. This thesis argues for a biocentric view in environmental education and suggests establishing a positive relationship to nature as a part of environmental education, mainly through outdoor environmental education.

This essay examines the environmental ideological direction of the Swedish parliamentary parties through the private members motions directed to the committee of industry and trade and the committee of environment and agriculture during the governmental time from 2002 to 2006. The environmental ideologies explained is anthropocentrism, ecocentrism and biocentrism. Based on the ideas of these three ideologies main points the private members motions directed to the committee of industry and trade and the committee of environment and agriculture, also matching the search words environment and energy, was compared and analysed. What has emerged is that all parliamentary parties express a desire to create an energy production and producing guide lines which are stringent environmentally and matches the safety requirements. Although the approach to environmental and safety standards differ significantly between them. Basically all Swedish parliamentary parties are more or less anthropocentric in its arguments, which in short terms means that they estimate natures and animals value through their usability for humans or based on their contribution to human feelings of wellbeing. The Centre Party and the Green Party shows hints of weak ecocentrism because in many cases they put animal intrinsic value high, but the human value higher. Moderates are predominantly anthropocentric but they also express some hint of biocentrism in one statement concerning research in order to reduce and rebuild environmentally destroyed areas. The Liberals, Conservatives, Social Democrats and the Left Party appears in this study as distinctly anthropocentric.

This thesis lies in the overlap of environmental political theory and environmental ethics. More specifically, it focuses on the intersection between distributive ecological justice (justice to nature), and environmental justice (distributing environmental goods between humans). Against the backdrop of the current sixth extinction crisis, I address the question of what constitutes a just usage of ecological space. I define ecological space as encompassing environmental resources, benefits provided by ecosystems and physical spaces and when considering its just usage I not only take into account claims to ecological space held by other humans but also the demands of justice with regards to nonhuman living beings such as animals and plants. In order to address my overall research question, I look at three areas of inquiry in particular. My first area of concern is questions around how environmental justice can be made compatible with a theory of ecological justice. Here I defend a specific definition of ecological space and provide a critique of theories of justice that are based on the view that humanity has an original ownership of the Earth. Secondly, I defend a biocentric approach to distributive ecological justice based on all living beings constituting together a community of fate, and I additionally clarify the relationship between justice and biodiversity loss. Lastly, considering that the current situation of life on Earth does not resemble the circumstance of moderate scarcity where all needs could theoretically be met (as usually assumed by the most influential theories of justice), I inquire into how demands of environmental and ecological justice differ in different circumstances of scarcity, and what could be considered a just compromise between these two domains of justice. I then apply these last considerations to the Half-Earth proposal for creating large protected areas for nonhuman species, which has been advocated by E. O. Wilson and other ecologists as a means to slow the current rate of anthropogenic species extinctions. In essence, the Half-Earth proposal might be ambitious, but I argue there are good reasons to consider it as one building block of a (distributively) just future for life on Earth.

No description available.

During the last 50 years, western European societies have been successful in creating economic growth, a functioning democracy and uniting these with social welfare. At the same time, environmental problems have become a major political challenge. Although some measures have been taken to introduce environmental protection, there continue to be serious problems. These can be related to democratic priorities and public information in the sense that they may, amongst other things, be a result of misinformed democratic publics. Jürgen Habermas's work is important for our understanding of how environmental problems can be managed better than today if, contrary to the ecoauthoritarian ideas, we consider that the solution to these problems calls for more democracy and better democratic forms. One can argue that his theory of communicative action makes it difficult to ignore him in debates about today's environmental problems. There are, nevertheless, three difficulties associated with developing a model based on Habermas's theory. Critics argue that, firstly, his theory has theoretical weaknesses; secondly, it is formulated in a way which makes empirical analysis impossible; and, thirdly, it cannot explain the rise of environmental protests and environmental movements, even if Habermas has this ambition. In the thesis, it is considered that environmental problems are political-cultural questions. Accordingly, a political cultural theory is constructed to interprete Habermas's ideas and assess the arguments of his critics. This theory consists of assumptions about notions and types of language-use used in co-ordinating collective action. It is built on the following variables: view of knowledge, view of social values and nature, and view of language-use. It is argued that Habermas's ideas can be defended, if one elaborates a political subculture that is biocentric (nature-centred), as a complement to anthropocentrism (a human-centred view of nature). Thus, his theory of communicative action can be used to develop a cultural model for empirical studies of environmental policy processes. The model consists of three cultural ideal types: anthropocentric material; anthropocentric immaterial; and biocentric immaterial. Obstacles to social learning and public participation, such as forms and styles of reasoning and the exclusion of citizens, are brought into focus. Finally, the model functions as a criticism of a neo-liberal view of environmental problems. Such a view lacks concepts for understanding how individuals consciously can co-ordinate their ideas and individual actions into a collective action. / digitalisering@umu

This dissertation joins the history of science and medicine with environmental history to explore the language of health in environmental politics. Today, in government policy briefs and mission statements of environmental non-profits, newspaper editorials and activist journals, claims about the health of the planet and its human and non-human inhabitants abound. Yet despite this rhetorical ubiquity, modern environmental politics are ideologically and organizationally fractured along the themes of whose health is at stake and how that health should be protected. This dissertation traces how these competing conceptions of health came to structure the landscape of American environmental politics. Beginning in the early 1950s, an expanding network of environmental activists began to think in terms of protecting the health of the planet and its inhabitants from the unprecedented hazards of nuclear energy and chemical proliferation. They did this by appropriating models and metaphors of health developed by postwar ecologists, philosophers, epidemiologists and nuclear physicians. Through this process of appropriation, scientists and philosophers were likewise drawn into environmental activism. Through five case studies, this dissertation traces the collaborations between scientists, environmental activists, philosophers, and medical doctors which enabled a broad range of articulations of health: the health of the wild, the health of the environment, the health of the planet, and the health of humans within the environment. Each case study attends to the intersection of political thought and practice, and explores how science and environmental activism were in constant dialogue in the postwar period. Drawing on archival materials and extensive oral history interviews, this dissertation demonstrates the centrality of health to American environmental politics from the end of World War Two until the present day. / History of Science

The thesis sets out to consider the role of the Christian Church in the context of the emergent ecological crisis. The essential context for such a study is twofold. First, within the Australian Church there is clearly a dominant emphasis on an anthropocentric mission strategy, and consequently it will be argued that such a position is inadequate. Second, it will be argued that it can almost be taken as a “given” that the ecological or environmental crisis facing life on planet Earth is immediate and critical, and covers a range of well-documented categories – global warming, extreme weather events, degradation of the soil, and other factors. The loss of bio-diversity is gathering pace, while the threat to iconic features such as the Great Barrier Reef is very real. Even just from a pragmatic or humanitarian point of view, it seems important for the Christian Church to be part of a global response. From that background the thesis proceeds in three essential stages. The first issue is the identification of a sound ecological theology, or ecotheology. From the background of a large and increasing volume of literature, a range of both human-centred and eco-friendly theological positions is considered, concluding with an argument in favour of theistic biocentrism, but acknowledging that a responsible Christian environmental response may emerge from other theological positions. Thus, the thesis proposes that in addition to the scientific evidence, there is a compelling theological argument for Christian action in caring for the environment as God’s creation, and this represents a clear rationale for eco-mission. In the second part, the issue that is considered is the range of existing theologies of mission. This literature has tended to be strongly anthropocentric and very weak in the ecological area; however, there is an increasing volume of literature demonstrating a shift in emphasis towards an enhanced awareness of an ecological dimension, and in identifying that trend the thesis seeks to develop an eco-mission theology. However, there is still a perception in many congregations and denominations that ecology is not really part of the Church’s agenda. While practical action guidance models are not common, this thesis aims to challenge such a perception, and to change the culture of apathy and non-involvement in building on a foundation of ecotheology and a theology of eco-mission. Third, the thesis then explores the range and extent of Christian eco-mission, beginning with a study of how that is practised in England, and continuing with a comparative study of emerging eco-mission activity in Australia. Thus, it addresses the fundamental question as to why Christian denominations (and, by implication, local congregations) are not more actively involved in ecological mission, and explore possibilities for that position to be changed. The thesis is set within a practical theology paradigm, and employs a qualitative methodology. This involves a series of interviews supplemented by written comments and personal observations, from which dominant themes will be drawn and analysed. Thus the thesis is designed to help the Christian community to understand the seriousness of the situation as well as the biblical and theological rationale for appropriate action in “the greening of mission” and the establishment of an Australian eco-church model. In grasping the ecological aspects of its divine charter in caring for God’s creation, the Church may operate with greater confidence alongside other concerned people and groups in the community.

The thesis sets out to consider the role of the Christian Church in the context of the emergent ecological crisis. The essential context for such a study is twofold. First, within the Australian Church there is clearly a dominant emphasis on an anthropocentric mission strategy, and consequently it will be argued that such a position is inadequate. Second, it will be argued that it can almost be taken as a “given” that the ecological or environmental crisis facing life on planet Earth is immediate and critical, and covers a range of well-documented categories – global warming, extreme weather events, degradation of the soil, and other factors. The loss of bio-diversity is gathering pace, while the threat to iconic features such as the Great Barrier Reef is very real. Even just from a pragmatic or humanitarian point of view, it seems important for the Christian Church to be part of a global response. From that background the thesis proceeds in three essential stages. The first issue is the identification of a sound ecological theology, or ecotheology. From the background of a large and increasing volume of literature, a range of both human-centred and eco-friendly theological positions is considered, concluding with an argument in favour of theistic biocentrism, but acknowledging that a responsible Christian environmental response may emerge from other theological positions. Thus, the thesis proposes that in addition to the scientific evidence, there is a compelling theological argument for Christian action in caring for the environment as God’s creation, and this represents a clear rationale for eco-mission. In the second part, the issue that is considered is the range of existing theologies of mission. This literature has tended to be strongly anthropocentric and very weak in the ecological area; however, there is an increasing volume of literature demonstrating a shift in emphasis towards an enhanced awareness of an ecological dimension, and in identifying that trend the thesis seeks to develop an eco-mission theology. However, there is still a perception in many congregations and denominations that ecology is not really part of the Church’s agenda. While practical action guidance models are not common, this thesis aims to challenge such a perception, and to change the culture of apathy and non-involvement in building on a foundation of ecotheology and a theology of eco-mission. Third, the thesis then explores the range and extent of Christian eco-mission, beginning with a study of how that is practised in England, and continuing with a comparative study of emerging eco-mission activity in Australia. Thus, it addresses the fundamental question as to why Christian denominations (and, by implication, local congregations) are not more actively involved in ecological mission, and explore possibilities for that position to be changed. The thesis is set within a practical theology paradigm, and employs a qualitative methodology. This involves a series of interviews supplemented by written comments and personal observations, from which dominant themes will be drawn and analysed. Thus the thesis is designed to help the Christian community to understand the seriousness of the situation as well as the biblical and theological rationale for appropriate action in “the greening of mission” and the establishment of an Australian eco-church model. In grasping the ecological aspects of its divine charter in caring for God’s creation, the Church may operate with greater confidence alongside other concerned people and groups in the community.

L'éthique de J. Rachels, qu'il en viendra à présenter comme un utilitarisme « à stratégies multiples », concilie la maximisation du bien-être global sur Terre avec une attention pour la variété des éléments qui le composent. De plus, le jugement moral relève des caractéristiques pertinentes des individus impliqués, eu égard au traitement envisagé, et non des espèces auxquelles ils appartiennent. Un tel Individualisme Moral fait donc dépendre le bénéfice de considérations morales, non plus seulement de facultés mentales développées, mais d'une variété de capacités, telle la sensibilité, dont sont dotés de nombreux animaux. À travers cela, l'auteur s'oppose, plus fondamentalement, à la tendance en éthique à vouloir poser des limites a priori à l'ensemble des êtres susceptibles de bénéficier de considérations morales pour eux-mêmes (les patients moraux). Ces limites sont généralement rapprochées de capacités telles que la rationalité ou la sensibilité – tout ce qui existe au-delà de cette « frontière » présentant une valeur moindre ou étant réduit à l'état de chose. Pour Rachels, en revanche, le statut moral ne dépend pas d'une caractéristique unique à portée générale : nous devrions plutôt convenir qu'il existe une variété de critères pertinents pour une variété de circonstances. C'est dans le cadre de cette réflexion autour de la considérabilité morale des objets de la nature, outre ses travaux sur l'euthanasie, que l'auteur publie Created from Animals: the Moral Implications of Darwinism (1990). « Darwinisme » s'entend ici comme une pensée tant proche de celle de C. Darwin en son temps qu'informée des derniers progrès dans notre compréhension de l'évolution des espèces, où la sélection naturelle joue un rôle clef : une pensée du changeant, du progressif et de la contingence qui succède à un monde ordonné et finalisé, où l'homme a une valeur spéciale, et à la conception essentialiste des espèces. Il ne s'agit rien plus que de s'assurer, sur le modèle d'une cohérence globale de la connaissance (naturalisme inspiré de W.O. Quine), de la compatibilité de la réflexion philosophique avec notre compréhension la plus complète des origines du vivant. Or, avec Darwin, plutôt que des ruptures brutales entre espèces, se découvre un motif complexe de similitudes et de différences qui reflète une ascendance commune. Un tel continuisme biologique, s'il n'en établit la fausseté, vient saper les bases de la « logique de frontières » sur le plan éthique, c'est-à-dire de cette stratégie consistant à justifier des régimes de traitement entièrement différents pour des individus d'espèces distinctes en arguant d'une radicale différence de nature. Cet argument essentiel consolide donc la pensée animaliste, notamment l'argument des « cas marginaux ». Mais on voit à travers lui que l'éthique animale elle-même est susceptible d'entretenir un biais anthropocentriste : étendu aux êtres sensibles, le statut moral demeure attaché à une caractéristique unique, que l'homme valorise d'autant plus volontiers qu'il en fait l'expérience intime. Cette démarche extensionniste ne ferait donc jamais que recréer de nouveaux critères d'exclusion, dont on peut désormais soupçonner le caractère arbitraire. Pour P. Taylor ou H. Rolston, en effet, une attitude de respect envers la vie en général n'a rien d'absurde. On devrait pouvoir envisager ainsi, dans le prolongement de la pensée de Rachels, de ne pas resserrer la communauté morale autour de la seule faculté sensible ; de mettre un terme au mouvement d'expansion de la communauté morale constaté à travers les siècles, non pas par une nouvelle frontière, mais en envisageant la dissolution de toute frontière. Ne rien considérer de ce qui appartient à la biosphère seulement comme une ressource, et se disposer à entretenir envers tout existant un rapport respectueux en adéquation avec ses propriétés réelles, en tenant compte de l'ensemble des circonstances : ce serait là le principe d'une « éthique de toutes choses ». / James Rachels' ethics, which he will finally present as a « multiple strategies utilitarianism », reconciles maximisation of global welfare on Earth and attention for the variety of elements which compose it. Furthermore, the moral judgement is related to the relevant characteristics of the individuals who are involved, in view of the considered treatment, not the species of which they belong. According to such Moral Individualism, the benefit of moral considerations will depend, not of developed mental faculties only, but of a variety of capacities, such as sensibility, which many animals have. Through this, the author opposes, more fundamentally, the tendency in ethics to define a priori limits to the beings which are likely to benefit from moral considerations for themselves (moral patients). These limits are generally associated with capacities such as rationality or sensibility – any existing being beyond this “frontier” having a lesser value or being reduced to a mere thing. For Rachels, however, moral status cannot depend on a unique characteristic with general scope: rather, it should be admitted that there is a variety of relevant criteria for a variety of circumstances. It is in the context of this reflection about the moral considerability of natural objects, besides his work on euthanasia, that the author publishes Created from Animals: the Moral Implications of Darwinism (1990). “Darwinism” shall be understood here both as a thought close to Darwin's in his days and informed of the last progresses in our understanding of species evolution, where natural selection plays a key role: ideas of changingness, gradualness and contingency are succeeding to an organized and finalized world where man has special value, and to the essentialist understanding of species. The point is nothing more than to ensure, on a global coherence of knowledge model (naturalism inspired by W.O. Quine), of the compatibility of the philosophical thinking with our most complete understanding of the origins of life. But now, after Darwin, rather than sharp breaks among species, we discover a complex pattern of resemblances as well as differences that reflect common ancestry. Such a biological continuism, if not proving its falsity, is undermining the basis of the “logic of frontiers” on the ethical field, that is to say, of this strategy which consists in justifying entirely different schemes of treatment for individuals belonging to distinct species by putting forward a radical difference in nature. This crucial argument makes stronger indeed the discourse in favour of animals, notably the argument from “marginal cases”. But we can see through this that animal ethics itself is likely to reproduce an anthropocentric bias: while extended to sentient beings, moral status remains associated with a unique characteristic that man is all the more likely to value since he experiences it intimately. This extensionnist approach, then, is nothing else than recreating new criteria of exclusion, which now we can suspect of being arbitrary. For P. Taylor or H. Rolston, indeed, a respectful attitude toward life in general is nothing like an absurdity. We should be able to consider then, in the wake of Rachels' thought, not to restrict the moral community to the sentient faculty only. And we should consider the possibility of putting an end to the expansion movement of the moral community observed throughout the centuries, not with another frontier, but in contemplating the dissolution of all frontiers. Do not consider anything of what belongs to the biosphere only as a resource, and be prepared to develop toward any being a respectful relationship in alignment with its real properties, taking into account the entirety of the circumstances: this would be the principle of an “everything ethics”.

Hållbar utveckling utgör utgångspunkten för den fysiska planeringen i dag. För att garantera att miljöinnehåll inkluderas i den fysiska planeringen genomförs miljökonsekvensbeskrivningar (MKB). Miljöetiska ställningstaganden och natursyner ligger till grund för vad som beaktas i miljöbedömningarna och i dokumentet Agenda 21, som togs fram i och med Riodeklarationen år 1992, förklaras att medvetande kring etik skapar bättre förutsättningar för att främja hållbar samhällsutveckling, vilket motiverar en undersökning om hur natursyner föreligger i svenska MKB:er idag. Natursynerna kan delas in i två kategorier: människocentrerade respektive icke-människocentrerade natursyner. I den förstnämnda ingår den antropocentriska natursynen som innebär att naturen enbart tillskrivs ett instrumentellt värde. Detta innebär att djur och växter endast är värdefulla om de förser människan med resurser. Utgångspunkten i den icke-människocentrerade världsbilden är att naturen och dess ingående delar tillhandahåller ett egenvärde som övergår dess instrumentella värde. Denna världsbild inrymmer två natursyner: biocentrism och ekocentrism. Biocentrismen innebär att samtliga individer och objekt av djur och växter tillhandahåller ett egenvärde medan ekocentrismen utgår från att ekologiska helheter och strukturer, såsom biologisk mångfald och ekosystem, har ett egenvärde som föregår de enskilda individernas egenvärde. Det empiriska materialet består av sju MKB:er för järnvägsplaner. Analysen fokuserar på två delar av dokumenten; dels de avsnitt av MKB:erna som behandlar naturmiljön och dels de avsnitt som hanterar mark och vatten. Med hjälp av en kvalitativ innehållsanalys går det att urskilja att de ekocentriska och svagt ekocentriska samt antropocentriska natursynerna är företrädande i miljökonsekvensbeskrivningarna. I delen för Naturmiljö är den ekocentriska och den svagt ekocentriska natursynen dominerande medan antropocentriska utgångspunkter, tillsammans med svagt ekocentriska sådana, får större utrymme i delen för Mark och vatten. Till stor del utgör lagstiftning, förordningar och intressen på högre nivåer utgångspunkter för MKB:er, vilket gör att de miljöetiska ställningstaganden som görs i underlaget reproduceras i miljökonsekvensbeskrivningarna. I många fall motiveras aldrig de olika ställningstagandena; det blir tydligt att visa strukturer eller objekt är värda att bevara men varför dessa är viktiga förklaras aldrig. Detta, tillsammans med att indikationer på flertalet natursyner återfinns i det empiriska materialet, bidrar till en uppfattning om att självmedvetenheten om de miljöetiska ställningstagandena är relativt låg. Genom att på ett teoretiskt plan belysa natursyner är förhoppningen att medvetenheten hos planerare, utredare och beslutsfattare ska öka så att beslutsprocesserna ska bli bättre underbyggda vilket i förlängningen kan bidra till att hållbar utveckling kan främjas.