The RNA-binding protein HuR is involved in numerous aspects of the RNA life-cycle. It is known for its ability to stabilize AU-Rich Element (ARE)-containing transcripts in the cytoplasm. The transcript of cIAP1, an important protein involved both in the regulation of apoptosis and NF-κB signaling, contains four such AREs, raising the question of whether HuR can modulate the stability of cIAP1 mRNA. First, using C2C12 cells, we observed a positive correlation between cIAP1 mRNA levels and HuR cytoplasmic localization. We then show that knockdown of HuR in U2OS cells results in a decrease in steady-state cIAP1 mRNA levels through destabilization of the cIAP1 mRNA. Furthermore, we are able to show in vitro that HuR binds directly to the second of the four AREs in the 3’ UTR. The direct link between the binding of HuR to the second ARE and its effect on cIAP1 mRNA stability remains to be shown.

CIAP1 (cellular Inhibitor of Apoptosis 1) possède une activité E3-ubiquitine ligase et présente des propriétés oncogéniques. Récemment, notre équipe a montré que cIAP1 pouvait réguler l’activité du facteur de transcription E2F1. L’objectif de mon travail de thèse était d’approfondir les mécanismes de cette régulation et d’évaluer l’importance de la coopération cIAP1-E2F1 dans l’activité oncogénique de cIAP1. J’ai démontré une interaction d’E2F1 avec la poche hydrophobe du domaine BIR3 de cIAP1. J’ai par ailleurs démontré l’importance de la première hélice α de ce domaine pour l’interaction de cIAP1 avec E2F1 et avec les autres protéines partenaires de cIAP1 capables de lier la poche hydrophobe du domaine BIR3. De plus, j’ai participé au travail montrant pour la première fois une régulation d’E2F1 par une ubiquitinylation non dégradative. cIAP1 permet la conjugaison de chaînes d’ubiquitines de type K63 sur les lysines 161 et 164 d’E2F1. Cette modification post-traductionnelle est indispensable à la stabilisation de la protéine lors d’un stress génotoxique et elle permet le recrutement du facteur de transcription sur les promoteurs des gènes cibles. Enfin, l’analyse des propriétés oncogéniques de cIAP1 n’ont pas permis, à ce jour, d’évaluer l’importance de la coopération cIAP1-E2F1. Cependant, nous avons montré l’importance du domaine BIR1 pour les propriétés oncogéniques de cIAP1 (domaine nécessaire à l’interaction de cIAP1 avec l’adaptateur moléculaire TRAF2). / The cellular inhibitor of Apoptosis 1 (cIAP1) behaves as an E3 ubiquitin ligase and has oncogenic properties. Previously, our team has shown that cIAP1 can regulate the E2F1 transcription factor activity. My research project has been focused on deepening our current knowledge on this interaction. Firstly, we characterized the E2F1-cIAP1 interaction, then we analyzed the regulation of E2F1 by cIAP1 and finally assessed the importance of the cIAP1-E2F1 interaction for the oncogenic properties of cIAP1. I have demonstrated a interaction of E2F1 with the hydrophobic pocket of the BIR3 domain of cIAP1. Moreover, I highlighted that the alpha 1 helix of the BIR3 domain is mandatory for the stability of this pocket. Moreover, we discovered an ubiquitination on lysine 161 and 164 of E2F1 by cIAP1. This ubiquitination is essential for the stability and transcriptional activity of E2F1. Finally, it appears that the cIAP1 BIR1 domain that is required for the interaction with TRAF2 is involved in its oncogenic properties.

Of all of the cancer patients throughout the world, approximately 50% of them are affected to some degree by cachexia. This syndrome involves significant skeletal muscle wasting, loss of adipose tissue and overall decrease in body weight in patients, particularly those with lung, pancreatic and gastric cancers. Cancer-induced cachexia is characterized by the presence of increased cytokines, notably TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6. Most patients suffering of cancer-induced cachexia experience increased toxicity in response to chemotherapy, leading to fewer rounds of treatment and thus impeding the patients’ chances for recovery. More research into effective treatments for cancer-induced cachexia would therefore be indispensable. The inhibitor of apoptosis proteins (IAPs) have emerged as important cancer targets, primarily because of their roles as caspase inhibitors and regulators of NF-κB signalling. Small molecule IAP antagonists known as Smac mimetic compounds (SMCs) are currently in stage I/II clinical trials. They function by targeting cIAP1 and cIAP2 (and to a lesser extent, XIAP) resulting in a cytokine mediated death response in cancer cells. SMCs induce the production of TNF-α, a cytokine with which SMCs can potently synergize. However, limited efficacy occurs in some cancer cell lines (presumably because TNF-α cannot be induced in an autocrine fashion) and an exogenous source of the cytokine, such as that induced by using an oncolytic virus, is required. Notably, TNF-α (initially known as “cachectin”) is known to play a significant role in the induction of skeletal muscle atrophy. We therefore wanted to examine the effects of TNF-α induction by SMC and oncolytic virus co-treatment on both tumour regression and skeletal muscle in tumour bearing mice. We investigated the effects of SMC treatment on Lewis Lung Carcinoma (LLC) and B16F10 melanoma cell lines, both of which have been shown to be established cachectic cancer cell lines. Our in-vitro analysis of LLC and B16F10 cells revealed that LLC cells are sensitive to SMC and TNF-α co-treatment whereas B16F10 cancer cells remain resistant. SMC treatment, in combination with an oncolytic virus, VSVΔ51, increased tumour regression and survival time in LLC tumour bearing mice. Based on findings from previous studies, we investigated the role of cellular FLICE-like inhibitory protein (c-FLIP) in the resistance of the B16F10 melanoma cell line to SMC treatment. We were able to determine that the down-regulation of c-FLIP sensitizes the B16F10 cells to SMC and TNF-α induced cell death. In extending these findings, we found that SMC treatment alone can cause skeletal muscle wasting in the tibialis anterior muscle of LLC tumour bearing mice. However, the atrophic response was observed to be minimal as documented by a slight but significant decrease (approximately 10%) in muscle fibre cross-sectional area. Moreover, no biochemical evidence of muscle atrophy, as visualized by changes in the expression of myosin heavy chain (MHC) and Muscle RING Finger protein 1 (MuRF1), was found. Regardless, we speculate that the impact of SMC treatment on muscle wasting would be transient and reversible, and propose that the benefits of such a combination immunotherapy would greatly outweigh the risks.

La protéine cIAP1 (cellular Inhibitor of Apoptosis Protein-1) de la famille des IAP (Inhibitor of Apoptosis Protein) est une E3 ubiquitine ligase qui présente des propriétés oncogéniques. Notre équipe s’intéresse aux processus permettant la différenciation des monocytes en macrophages. Au cours de la différenciation de nombreux modèles cellulaires (macrophages, cellules dendritiques, cellules épithéliales du colon, cellules souches hématopoïetiques, cardiomyocytes), cIAP1 sort du noyau pour se relocaliser dans le cytoplasme. La plupart des fonctions connues de cIAP1 sont liées à sa localisation cytoplasmique où elle est un régulateur important des voies de signalisation des récepteurs du TNFα et de NF-κB. Lors de la différenciation macrophagique, nous avons montré que cIAP1, une fois dans le cytoplasme, induit la dégradation de TRAF-2, un adaptateur moléculaire impliqué dans la transduction du signal des voies des récepteurs du TNFα et de NF-κB. Cette dégradation bloque la voie canonique de NF-κB et est essentielle à la différenciation terminale des monocytes en macrophages qui nécessite une activation transitoire de cette voie de signalisation. Cependant, cIAP1 est principalement exprimée dans le noyau de différents types cellulaires ce qui n’est pas en accord avec son rôle dans la signalisation cellulaire. Mon objectif a donc consisté à identifier les fonctions nucléaires de cIAP1 dans des cellules prolifératives ou lors de la différenciation macrophagique. Mon travail de thèse a permis d’identifier un rôle de cIAP1 dans la prolifération cellulaire. cIAP1 interagit avec le facteur de transcription E2F1 et favorise son recrutement sur les promoteurs des Cycline E et A impliquées dans les transitions G1/S et G2 du cycle cellulaire, ce qui augmente l’expression des transcrits et des protéines de ces deux cibles. Il semblerait que par cette activité, cIAP1 régule la prolifération des cellules et soit important dans l’équilibre entre la prolifération et la différenciation, deux mécanismes cellulaires étroitement liés. / The inhibitor of apoptosis protein cIAP1 (cellular inhibitor of apoptosis protein-1) from the IAP family (Inhibitor of Apoptosis Protein) is an E3 ubiquitin ligase that displays oncogenic properties. Our team is interested in the mecanisms that allow macrophagic differentiation from monocytes. cIAP1 is relocalised from the nucleus to the cytoplasm during the differentiation of many kind of cellular models (macrophages, dendritic cells, colon epithelial cells, hematopoietic stem cells, cardiomyocytes). The well-known functions of cIAP1 are associated with its cytoplasmic localisation, where it regulates the TNFα receptors and NF-κB signalling pathways. During macrophage differentiation, we show that cIAP1, once it is in cytoplasm, induces TRAF-2 degradation, a molecular adaptator of the TNFα receptors family and NF-κB signalling pathways. This degradation blocks the canonical pathway of NF-κB and is essential for the terminal differentiation into macrophages that needs a transitory activation of this pathway. However, cIAP1 is mainly expressed in the nucleus on many cell types which is not in accordance with its cell signalling activity. My objective was to investigate the nuclear function of cIAP1 in proliferative cells or during macrophage differentiation. My work identifies a function of cIAP1 in proliferation regulation. cIAP1 interacts with E2F1 transcription factor and favors its recruitment on Cyclins E and A promoters, both involved in G1/S and G2 phases of the cell cycle, which leads to high level of transcript and protein expression of these two targets. It seems that cIAP1 regulates the cellular proliferation and is important for the balance between proliferation and differentiation, two mechanisms tightly connected in cells.

Cellular Inhibitor of Apoptosis Protein 1 (cIAP1) de la famille des IAP (Inhibitor of ApoptosisProtein) est un oncogène à activité E3-ubiquitine ligase. Notre équipe s’intéresse aux processus de différenciation des cellules hématopoïétique. cIAP1 est localisée dans le noyau des précurseurs hématopoïétiques exprimant le marqueur CD34. Lors de leur différenciationnotamment en macrophages ou en cellules dendritiques, cIAP1 est exclue du noyau. L’objectif de ma thèse a été de caractériser de nouvelles fonctions nucléaires et cytoplasmiques de cIAP1. Mes résultats ont contribués à mettre en évidence une fonction nucléaire de cIAP1 dans la régulation du cycle cellulaire via le contrôle du facteur de transcription E2F1. Dans le cytoplasme, cIAP1 est un régulateur de l’activation de la signalisation NF-kB et TNF-α. cIAP1 est un déterminant de la réponse des cellules au TNF-a, favorisant l’activation de NF-kB aux dépens de la mort cellulaire. Le TNF-α est aussi capable de moduler le cytosquelette d’actine et les propriétés morphologiques et migratoires des cellules. Dans les fibroblastes, il induit la formation de fines protrusions membranaires riches en actine appelées filipodes. Mes travaux ont montrés que cIAP1, associée à son partenaire historique TRAF2, régule la formation de ces filipodes. Elle est capable d’interagirdirectement avec la RhoGTPase Cdc42 et de contrôler son activation après un traitement par le TNF- α, mais aussi EGF. De plus, cIAP1 régule aussi la polarisation de l’appareil de Golgi, une fonction spécifiquement attribuée à Cdc42. Cette nouvelle fonction de cIAP1 dans le contrôle de Cdc42 pourrait contribuer aux propriétés oncogéniques de cIAP1 / Cellular Inhibitor of Apoptosis Protein 1 (cIAP1), a IAP family member (Inhibitor of ApoptosisProtein) is an E3 ubiquitin ligase which displays oncogenic properties. The research project of our team is focused on hematopoietic differentiation. cIAP1 is localized in the nucleus of hematopoietic precursors CD34+, and is excluded to the cytoplasm along macrophage and dendritic cell differentiation. The aim of my thesis was to characterize new nuclear and cytoplasmic fonctions of cIAP1. I have contributed to identify a nuclear function of cIAP1 in the regulation of cell cycle through a control of E2F1 transcription factor. In the cytoplasm, cIAP1 is a well-known modulator of NF-kB and TNF-α signaling pathway. It can determine the response of cells to TNF-α, through stimuling the canonical activation of NF-kB and inhibiting cell death. TNF-α can also promote cytoskeleton remodeling which determine morphogenetic properties including morphology or motility. My results suggest a role for cIAP1, when associated its partner TRAF2, in the control of actin rich protrusions called filipodia upon TNF-α stimulation. cIAP1 can interact and control Cdc42 activation, a member of Rho GTPases protein family. cIAP1/TRAF2 appears to control other process controlled by Cdc42 including, filipodia formation in response to EGF, or Golgi polarization. This function of cIAP1 in the control of Cdc42 could contribute to cIAP1 oncogenic properties

La protéine cIAP1 (cellular Inhibitor of Apoptosis Protein-1) de la famille des IAP (Inhibitor of Apoptosis Protein) est un oncogène avec une activité E3 ubiquitine ligase. Au cours de la différenciation de nombreux modèles cellulaires (macrophages, cellules dendritiques, cellules épithéliales du colon, cellules souches hématopoïetiques, cardiomyocytes), cIAP1 sort du noyau pour se relocaliser dans le cytoplasme, cette relocalisation étant associée à un arrêt de prolifération. La plupart des fonctions connues de cIAP1 sont liées à sa localisation cytoplasmique où il est un régulateur important des voies de signalisation des récepteurs du TNF-a et de NF-?B. Cependant, cIAP1 est principalement exprimée dans le noyau de différents types cellulaires ce qui n’est pas en accord avec son rôle dans la signalisation cellulaire. Mon travail de thèse a permis d’identifier un rôle de cIAP1 dans la prolifération cellulaire. cIAP1 interagit avec le facteur de transcription E2F1 et favorise son recrutement sur les promoteurs des Cycline E et A impliquées dans les transitions G1/S et G2 du cycle cellulaire, ce qui augmente l’expression des transcrits et des protéines de ces deux cibles. Il semblerait que par cette activité, cIAP1 régule la prolifération des cellules et soit important dans l’équilibre entre la prolifération et la différenciation, deux mécanismes cellulaires étroitement liés. Dans un second travail, nous avons montré que cAIP1 est déterminant dans le remodelage du cytosquelette d’actine en réponse au TNF-a. Dans les fibroblastes, le TNF-a induit la formation de fines protrusions membranaires riches en actine appelées filipodes, cette formation étant régulée par cdc42. Mes travaux ont montrés que cIAP1, associé à son partenaire historique TRAF2, régule la formation de ces filipodes. Il est capable d’interagir directement avec la RhoGTPase Cdc42 et de contrôler son activation après un traitement par le TNF- a, mais aussi par l’EGF. De plus, cIAP1 régule également la transformation oncogénique par HRas en augmentant les propriétés invasives et migratoires des cellules. Ces nouvelles fonctions de cIAP1 pourraient contribuer à ses propriétés oncogéniques. / The inhibitor of apoptosis protein cIAP1 (cellular inhibitor of apoptosis protein-1) from the IAP family (Inhibitor of Apoptosis Protein) is an oncogene with an E3 ubiquitin ligase activity. cIAP1 is relocalized from the nucleus to the cytoplasm during the differentiation of many kind of cellular models (macrophages, dendritic cells, colon epithelial cells, hematopoietic stem cells, cardiomyocytes) and this relocalization is associated with a proliferation arrest. The well-known functions of cIAP1 are associated with its cytoplasmic localization, where it regulates the TNFa receptors and NF-?B signaling pathways. However, cIAP1 is mainly expressed in the nucleus on many cell types which is not in accordance with its cell signalling activity. My work identifies a function of cIAP1 in proliferation regulation. cIAP1 interacts with E2F1 transcription factor and favors its recruitment on Cyclins E and A promoters, both involved in G1/S and G2 phases of the cell cycle, which leads to high level of transcript and protein expression of these two targets. It seems that cIAP1 regulates the cellular proliferation and is important for the balance between proliferation and differentiation, two mechanisms tightly connected in cells. In a second work, we showed that cIAP1 is critical for actin cytoskeleton modification upon TNF-a treatment. In fibroblasts, TNF-a induce filipodia formation, a process regulated by cdc42. Our work showed that cIAP1, when associated with its partner TRAF2, interact and control cdc42 activation, a member of Rho GTPases protein family. We also observed that cIAP1 regulates HRas driven oncogenic transformation and increases the motility and invasiveness of the cells. These new functions of cIAP1 in the control of transcription factor and cell cytoskeleton could be important for its oncogenic properties.

Apoptosis is the mechanism by which complex multicellular organisms induce the programmed death of damaged cells, thus maintaining tissue homeostasis. One of the main hallmarks of cancer, apoptosis is tightly regulated by pro- and anti-apoptotic factors whose equilibrium will decide of the fate of the cell. Among these factors, the cellular inhibitor of apoptosis cIAP1 is a key regulator of nuclear factor-κB dependent signaling and of caspase-8 mediated apoptosis. cIAP1 expression is controlled primarily at the translational level through an internal ribosome entry site (IRES) that facilitates the recruitment of the ribosome to the translation initiation start independently of the 5’ cap. We have previously identified four putative IRES trans-acting factors (ITAFs) that bind specifically to the cIAP1 IRES, namely NF45, NF90, IGF2BP1 and RH1. My research project characterised NF45 as an ITAF that positively regulates the IRES-mediated translation of cIAP1 and of the Xlinked inhibitor of apoptosis, XIAP. This regulation is important for maintaining Survivin and Cyclin E protein levels and insuring proper cell division. Furthermore, I showed that IGF2BP1 is another ITAF that is overexpressed in rhabdomyosarcoma cancer (RMS) and positively regulates cIAP1 translation, thus leading to apoptotic resistance in these cells. Importantly, the use of Smac mimetics, chemical compounds that cause cIAP1 proteasomal degradation, induces TNFα-mediated apoptosis of RMS cells and leads to growth inhibition of RMS xenograft tumors as well as significantly improved survival. Finally, I show that certain modulators of innate immunity synergize with Smac mimetics to improve the killing of RMS cancer cells. Hence, cIAP1 translation regulation by NF45 and IGF2BP1 is highly important for maintaining proper functioning of the cell and dysregulation of these ITAFs can lead to carcinogenesis.