Trata-se de dissertação para obtenção do grau de Mestre perante a Faculdade de Direito da Universidade de São Paulo, versando sobre as regras de Subcapitalização no Direito Tributário Brasileiro. O tema central da dissertação pode ser resumido da seguinte maneira: o que são regras de subcapitalização e qual a real necessidade de estabelecimento destas no direito tributário brasileiro, tendo em vista o ordenamento jurídico precedente à publicação das referidas normas. Iniciaremos o trabalho com a contextualização histórica do tema e, na sequência, analisaremos a legislação relativa à subcapitalização no direito comparado, estudando os princípios norteadores, bem como as regras específicas existentes nas diversas localidades estudadas. Estudaremos ainda o sistema jurídico tributário precedente às regras de subcapitalização, bem como analisaremos caso julgado pelo Conselho de Contribuintes, conhecido como caso Colgate/Kolynos, considerado o principal julgado a respeito da matéria no Brasil e que, certamente, foi relevante para o estabelecimento das regras de subcapitalização no Brasil. Por fim, após descrição minuciosa da legislação estabelecida no Brasil, será realizada avaliação crítica, tendo em vista as imperfeições e lacunas verificadas na norma introdutora das regras de subcapitalização no Brasil, a saber, Medida Provisória nº 472/09, de 16 de dezembro de 2009, posteriormente convertida na Lei nº 12.249, de 14 de junho de 2010, bem como da regulamentação expedida pela Receita Federal do Brasil por meio da Instrução Normativa nº 1.154, de 12 de maio de 2011. / This is a dissertation to obtain the Master before the University of São Paulo Law School, about thin capitalization rules in Brazilian Tax Law. The central theme of the dissertation can be summarized this way: what are thin capitalization rules and what is the real need of establishing such rules in the Brazilian Tax Law, considering the previous existing law system. The starting point will be the historical contextualization of the theme and, in the sequel, we will analyze the thin capitalization rules in the foreign law, studying the guiding principles and the existing specific rules in the places studied. It will be studied the legal tax system precedent to thin capitalization rules, as well as it will be analyzed a case judged by Council Taxpayers, known as case Colgate/Kolynos, considered the principal case related to the subject in Brazil which, certainly, was relevant for establishing the thin capitalization rules in Brazil. Lastly, it will also be analyzed in details the rules established in Brazil, including a critical evaluation, in the view of imperfections and gaps verified in the rules which established thin capitalization rules in Brazil, namely, Provisory Measure nº 472, 2009 December 16th, converted into Law nº 12.249, 2010 June 14th, and regulation issued by Federal Tax Authorities, Normative Instruction nº 1.154, 2011 May 12

In the current situation in the housing market and in particular the inner city much attention is directed towards achieved prices per square meter in sales. The indicator is as a principle an appropriate measure of the housing market’s health and development, and can to some extent be used to make approximations of the general economic health status of municipalities and counties. It occurs occasionally that questions about whether prices are based on fundamentals at all times.The thesis questions that very issue, not from a macro accompanying financial perspective but rather from a microeconomic perspective, where each tenant ownership in the study is a micro-object. Are the observed prices per square meter rational relative to housing cooperative’s assets or is there a lack in the observed prices anchoring the respective association's finances. A result that does not enhance the image that the observed prices are rational in relation to housing cooperative’s assets should be seen as a warning signal that the macro-economic part of the housing market in the area may be subject to irrational pricing, and as a consequence one might argue that the market as a whole is unbalanced. The result is that there are variations in the observed square meter prices and net assets. In most cases, the net asset is not huge, the average is just over 3000 sek per square meter, which means that the market is definitely not completely out of balance. But in this study, an image that reinforces the theory that the market would be rational has not been found. The link between the square meter price and net asset is not linear, in fact there is little to no correlation. The correlation between the fee and net assets, however is stronger, although it is not fully capitalized. The difference is that net assets is a key that shows how strong economy housing cooperative has, and as such it is directly connected to have large fee the cooperative has to charge its members to retain a sustainable economy. It has been shown in previous studies that the fee capitalization on housing prices is not very strong, at least not in Stockholm's inner city, especially Östermalm 1. With that conclusion in mind it is not entirely surprising that the net asset would have even smaller capitalization effect. There are some measures that reasonably ought to change the way the market is acting. Greater financial accountability of developers and estate agents and a better understanding and deeper insight into the economic factors that are directly related to the ownership of the housing cooperative sought. The market is not out of balance, but it would be more rational if the market looked beyond prices per square meters. / I dagens situation på bostadsmarknaden och i synnerhet innerstan riktas stor fokusering på uppnådda kvadratmeterpriser vid försäljningar. Nyckeltalet är som princip ett lämpligt mått på hur bostadsmarknaden utvecklas och mår, och kan i viss mån användas för att göra generellare ekonomiska hälsostatusar på kommuner och län. Det uppkommer emellanåt frågetecken kring om priserna är baserade på fundamenta alla gånger. Examensarbetet ifrågasätter just denna fråga, inte ur ett makroekonomiskt perspektiv utan snarare ur ett mikroekonomiskt perspektiv, där varje bostadsrätt i studien utgör ett mikro-objekt. Är de faktiska kvadratmeterpriserna rationella i förhållande till föreningars tillgångar och låneskulder eller saknar de observerade priserna koppling till respektive förenings ekonomi. Ett resultat som inte stärker bilden av att de observerade priserna är rationella i förhållande till föreningens ekonomiska situation bör ses som en varningssignal att den makro ekonomiska bostadsmarknaden för området inte är i balans. eftersöks. Marknaden är inte ur balans, men den skulle kunna bli mer rationell om marknaden tittade längre än kvadratmeterpriset Resultatet är att det finns variationer i de observerade kvadratmeter priserna och respektive objekts nettotillgångar. I de flesta fall är substansvärdena inte enorma, den genomsnittliga netto tillgången är drygt 3000 kronor per kvadratmeter, vilket innebär att marknaden definitivt inte är helt ur balans. Men i denna studie har en bild som som förstärker bilden av att marknaden skulle vara rationell inte funnits. Kopplingen mellan priset per kvadratmeter och netto tillgångar är inte linjär, i själva verket finns det liten eller ingen korrelation mellan dessa. Korrelationen mellan avgiften och nettotillgångar är starkare, även om det inte är helt kapitaliserad. Skillnaden mellan de två korrelationerna är att nettotillgångarna är en faktor som visar hur stark ekonomi bostadsrättsföreningen har, och som sådan är direkt ansluten till hur stor avgift föreningen måste belasta sina medlemmar med för att upprätthålla en hållbar ekonomi. Det har visats i tidigare studier att avgiftens kapitalisering på bostadspriserna inte är särskilt stark, åtminstone inte i Stockholms innerstad, särskilt beträffande Östermalm. Med den slutsatsen i åtanke är det inte helt förvånande att nettotillgångarna har ännu mindre kapitaliserings effekt. Ökad finansiell redovisningsskyldighet för föreningar och en bättre förståelse och djupare insikt i de ekonomiska faktorer som är direkt relaterade till ägandet av bostadsrättsföreningen borde eftersträvas. Marknaden är inte ur balans, men det skulle vara mer rationellt om marknaden såg bortom priserna per kvadratmeter.

Syfte: Den nya leasingstandarden IFRS 16 träder i kraft i år, 2019, vilken innebär att företag ska kapitalisera sina operationella leasingavtal. Huvudsyftet med studien är därför att undersöka hur denna kapitalisering påverkar företag med avseende på deras finansiella rapporter och nyckeltal. Studien har även ett delsyfte vilket är att undersöka hur väl kapitaliseringsmodellen har estimerat operationella leasingavtalens påverkan utifrån utvalda nyckeltal hos företag. Metod: Studien använder ett kvantitativt tillvägagångssätt med en deduktiv forskningsansats. Empiriska data har samlats in med hjälp av en innehållsanalys där de dokument som granskats är årsredovisningar. Det insamlade materialet har sedan granskats med hjälp av deskriptiv statistik och bivariata analyser. Kapitaliseringsmodellen har också tillämpats för att kunna jämföra modellens estimeringar med verkliga utfallet. Resultaten har sedan diskuterats och lett till studiens slutsatser. Resultat & Slutsats: Resultaten av studien visar att tillgångar och skulder ökar för företag efter införandet av IFRS 16. Studien kommer fram till att branscherna hälsovård och detaljhandel kommer påverkas mest, att mindre företag samt mindre finansiellt begränsade företag påverkas mer. Studien finner att kapitaliseringsmodellen i regel har fungerat bra, främst inom branschen fastigheter och för större företag. Uppsatsens bidrag: Teoretiskt bidrar studien till avsaknaden av forskning om de faktiska effekterna hos företag på grund av implementeringen av IFRS 16. Den ger också ett svar på hur väl kapitaliseringsmodellen har fungerat, vilket kan vara användbart för såväl analytiker som forskare. Det praktiska bidraget är att studien bidrar till en ökad förståelse kring hur företag och olika branscher påverkas av den nya leasingstandarden. Förslag till fortsatt forskning: Ett förslag till vidare forskning är att studera ett större urval för att kunna få ett mer generaliserbart resultat. Ett annat förslag är att göra liknande studier i andra länder, för att se om regelförändringen slår hårdare på andra marknader.

<p>This thesis deals with the legislative problem of thin and thick capitalization of subsidiary companies situated abroad. This kind of companies are often used for tax planning purposes, as means for transferring company profit from a high tax state to a low tax state. Today, the legislative flora around the world mainly focuses on the question"how low/high can the capitalization level of the company be, before thin/thick capitalization can be considered to be at hand?". Instead, this thesis raises the question"how far from the optimal capitalization rate is a probable capitalization level for a company, and can this be an alternative approach to legislation?". The object of the thesis is to point out possibilities, as well as obstacles, to this approach, but also to show a possible design of a regulation based on the approach. It is discussed whether the uncertainty in determining the optimal capitalization rate overthrows the theory behind the approach, or in fact strengthens it. Several advantages, but also a number of drawbacks, are shown. Hence, the conclusion of the study is neither in favor of, nor against, a regulation founded on the optimal capitalization rate, but rather an invitation to further discussion and calculations.</p>

This thesis deals with the legislative problem of thin and thick capitalization of subsidiary companies situated abroad. This kind of companies are often used for tax planning purposes, as means for transferring company profit from a high tax state to a low tax state. Today, the legislative flora around the world mainly focuses on the question"how low/high can the capitalization level of the company be, before thin/thick capitalization can be considered to be at hand?". Instead, this thesis raises the question"how far from the optimal capitalization rate is a probable capitalization level for a company, and can this be an alternative approach to legislation?". The object of the thesis is to point out possibilities, as well as obstacles, to this approach, but also to show a possible design of a regulation based on the approach. It is discussed whether the uncertainty in determining the optimal capitalization rate overthrows the theory behind the approach, or in fact strengthens it. Several advantages, but also a number of drawbacks, are shown. Hence, the conclusion of the study is neither in favor of, nor against, a regulation founded on the optimal capitalization rate, but rather an invitation to further discussion and calculations.

Leasing is and has been American companies largest external source of equipment financing and there are signs that the concept been used 2010 years before Christ. It is larger than bank loans, bonds, stocks, commercial mortgages and the fastest growing form of business investment. Imhoff, Lipe and Wright (1991) wrote that the popularity of leasing is due to management's ability to maintain leased asset and hence the finance obligation off-balance sheet. The forthcoming transition from IAS 17 to IFRS 16 implies a change of operational and financial leasing reporting for lease takers to provide a more transparent and comparable picture of the company's balance - and income statement. The constructive capitalization method is the theory of this paper which Imhoff, Lipe and Wright (1991,1997) developed and Fülbier Silva and Pferdehirt (2008) later modified. The method is used to capitalize the company's operational leases based on public information from annual reports. The study was conducted with a quantitative approach by collecting secondary data on the OMXS30 companies. The purpose of the paper was to highlight how large company’s operative in Sweden are affected by the new leasing rules in IFRS 16 and review the amount of debts that are de facto outside the balance sheet. This study shows that companies will report higher liabilities, assets, operating profit and net profit, and less own equity. The study also shows that the key ratios examined will change when the transition from IAS 17 to IFRS 16 occurs. The capitalization of operational leases led to a higher increase in total liabilities than total assets that could see a less higher increase. This led to a diversified effect on the key ratios examined. Key ratios linked to profitability and solidity that change the most in comparison with the remaining key ratios in this study were the D/A ratio and Solidity. The key ratio with the most overall diversified change where the debt / equity ratio. The financial ratios were changed for all the examined companies, however, the P/E rate staggered with the highest change, overall and for each company. This paper shows that retailers will be affected most, which H&amp;M shows in this study with a doubling debt ratio. / Leasing har varit och är amerikanska företagens största externa källa till utrustningsfinansiering och det finns spår som tyder på att konceptet redan använts 2010 år före Kristus. Leasing är större än banklån, obligationer, aktier och är den snabbast växande formen av affärsinvesteringar. Imhoff, Lipe och Wright (1991) skrev att populariteten av leasing beror på ledningens förmåga att behålla den leasade tillgången och därmed den finansiella skulden utanför balansräkningen. Den kommande övergången från IAS 17 till IFRS 16 innebär en förändring av operationell och finansiell leasingredovisning för leasingtagare för att tillhandahålla en mer transparent och jämförbar bild över företagets balansräkning och resultaträkning. Teorin för denna uppsats är konstruktiv kapitaliseringsmetod som Imhoff, Lipe och Wright (1991,1997) tog fram och som senare Fülbier Silva och Pferdehirt (2008) modifierade. Modellerna används för att kunna kapitalisera företagens operativa leasingavtal utifrån offentlig information från årsredovisningen. Studien genomfördes med en kvantitativ ansats genom insamling av sekundärdata på OMXS30-företagen. Syftet med uppsatsen är att belysa hur stora företag som är verksamma i Sverige påverkas av de nya leasingreglerna i IFRS 16 och uppmärksamma hur mycket skulder som de facto ligger utanför balansräkningen. Denna studie framvisar att företagen kommer redovisa högre skulder, tillgångar, rörelseresultat och nettoresultat samt ett mindre eget kapital. Studien uppmärksammar även att de undersökta nyckeltalen kommer förändras vid övergången från IAS 17 till IFRS 16. Kapitaliseringen av operationella leasingavtal ledde till en högre ökning av summa skulder än summa tillgångar som erhöll en mindre ökning. Detta ledde till en diversifierad effekt på de undersökta nyckeltalen. Nyckeltalen kopplat till lönsamhet och soliditet, som förändras mest i jämförelse med de resterande undersökta nyckeltalen i denna studie, var D/A – talet och Soliditet samt nyckeltalet som hade högst diversifierad förändring var skuldsättningsgraden. De mer finansiellt inriktade nyckeltalen förändrades för samtliga undersökta företag dock presenterade P/E – talet den högsta förändringen, totalt sett och för respektive företag. Sammantaget för studien är att detaljhandelsföretag kommer påverkas mest vilket H&amp;M demonstrerar i denna uppsats med en fördubblad skuldsättningsgrad.

This qualitative and descriptive essay discusses pharmaceutical companies’ financial reporting of research and development expenditures, if separate acquisitions and development expenditure for internally generated intangible assets are expensed or capitalized, and the reason for this. The problem statements are: How do pharmaceutical companies report their development and research expenditures? Why do pharmaceutical companies choose to expense or capitalize their separate acquisitions and development expenditures for internally generated intangible assets? Interviews have been conducted with pharmaceutical companies that comply with IFRS in their consolidated reporting and which conduct research and development. It is internally generated intangible assets and separate acquisitions that are in focus of this study. Since 2005 it is mandatory for publicly listed companies in the EU to apply to IFRS (International Financial Reporting Standards) in their consolidated reporting. Since IFRS rules are principle based this allows for a more flexible application of accounting standards, which contributes to a subjective interpretation. Expenditures for research and development should be reported either by direct expensing in the income statement or capitalization as an intangible asset in the balance sheet if certain criteria according to IAS 38 are met. Choice of method affects the company´s key ratios along with the balance and income statements and it is the companies themselves which are to determine whether these conditions are met or not. Institutional theory has been used to establish whether companies’ choice of expensing or capitalizing can be explained through different forms of isomorphism, habits and practices, or if choice of method is based on the organization and its environment´s mutual dependency and how the stake holders will perceive the company. Evidence shows that it is mainly coercive isomorphism through laws and regulations that govern the choice of method, but also habits and practices as well as mimetic isomorphism to achieve legitimacy affect choice of method.

Företag kan finansiera verksamheten på olika sätt. Ett alternativ för finansiering vid nyanskaffning är leasing. Det innebär att man låter ett annat bolag köpa tillgången och hyr det sedan av bolaget. Den nya standarden, IFRS 16, som ges ut av IASB och som ska tas i bruk från och med januari 2019, har ändrat kriterierna för klassificeringen av leasingavtal. Vilket har gjort att många tidigare operationella leasingavtal med en avtalstid längre än 12 månader kommer med den nya standarden att klassas som finansiella leasingavtal och därmed föras in på balansräkningen som skulder och tillgångar. Denna studie undersöker effekterna en kapitalisering ger på svenska börsnoterade bolag. För dessa bolag används en kapitaliseringsmodell för att få fram effekten av en kapitalisering av nuvarande operationella leasingavtal på balans- och resultaträkningen för år 2014. Resultaten visar på att balansräkningen kommer påverkas mer än resultaträkningen, då det tillkommer i vissa fall stora skulder och tillgångar. Detta ger genomslag till nyckeltalen, där nyckeltal såsom intensitet av investeringar, soliditet och skuldsättningsgrad får markant större förändringar än andra nyckeltal i studien. / Companies can use different ways to finance their businesses. One of the options is to leas the assets they want. This means that another company purchase an asset then you leas said asset from the purchasing company. IASB have made a new standard, IFRS 16, which will become active in January 2019. This new standard have change the criteria of how to classify leases. With IFRS 16 many of the operating leases that are longer than 12 months, now have to be classified as financial leases. Because of that they have to go from off balance sheet to be a part of the balance sheet. With this study we want to look at the effects that a capitalization of leases have on selected financial ratios in Swedish companies traded on the OMX Nasdaq stock exchange. We use a constructive capitalizations model to see the effects of current operating leases on the balance- and income-sheet for the year 2014. Our results indicate that most effect will be seen on the balance-sheet, because of the way capitalization works, it is intended to bring the leases onto the balance-sheet. We also see some effects on financial ratios, where balance focused ratios gets effected more than others, example intensity of investment, equity/assets and debt/equity.

Banks face market pressure when determining their capital structures because they are subject to strict regulations. CFOs are willing to adjust their company’s capital structures in order to obtain higher ratings. The credit ratings are highly valuable not only because they assess the creditworthiness of the borrowers but also because those agencies take advantage of the information asymmetry and have access to data that companies might not disclose publicly. Also, this industry gained much interest after the BIS proposals back in 1999 and 2001 that the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision should consider the borrower’s credit ratings when examining banks’ solvency and adequacy. Factors used to determine the credit ratings are banks’ asset quality which is fundamental measure for the creditworthiness, banks’ capital which is related to the asset quality in relation to the RWA, banks’ profitability, and liquidity measurements. The purpose of this paper is to investigate whether the banks that keep excess equity to balance sheet receive better credit ratings, given the predictors capital, banks size and defaulted to total exposures. The European Banking Authority (EBA) stress test results are used as a benchmark for determining banks’ capital adequacy and solvency, whereas the credit ratings are obtained shortly after the EBA’s reports publication. The sample size is 73 and 95 banks for the years 2011 and 2014, respectively. The results from the multivariate ordinal regression do not show significant correlation results between the excess equity to balance sheet and the credit ratings, even though the estimated coefficient is negative, namely excess equity is associated with lower credit ratings. An explanation to this one can find in the low-quality capital relative to the banks’ capital base. Also, banks which plan to implement risker projects or currently hold risker assets are subject to higher capital requirements. Moreover, banks currently being rated low but with the potential of being upgraded would be more willing to issue equity than debt in order to avoid the corresponding risk and achieve the higher rating. The equity ratio and the defaulted to total exposures ratio show significant correlation to the banks’ credit ratings. Overall, since the results of the regression are insignificant, we do not have reasons to believe that holding excess equity is not beneficial for banks. When banks make changes in their leverage ratios they would either carry the cost of being downgraded or the cost related to issuing more equity, therefore at the end they will balance the leverage ratio close to the optimal and keep as much capital as required by regulations.

<p>This thesis examines the influence of investor protection and legal origin on equity market size. Previous studies have shown a relationship between legal origin and equity markets as well as quality of law. We examine whether there are any relationship between stock market capitalization as a percentage of GDP, private property rights, anti director rights and legal origin.</p><p>We use data from 49 countries in our sample that is collected from the World Bank, Heri-tage foundation and La Porta et al. (1998). Our study is based upon a cross-sectional re-gressions and a variance analyzes.</p><p>Our results show that property rights as well as anti director rights have a positive relation-ship to stock market capitalization as a percentage of GDP. We could not find any signifi-cant results in our regressions that stock market capitalization as a percentage of GDP can be explained by legal origin.</p><p>We consider previous conducted studies regarding legal origin to have exaggerated legal origins’ impact on equity markets. Equity markets are more related to the level of develop-ment in countries, no matter legal origin.</p>