Immunohistochemistry is used widely to identify cholinergic neurons, but this approach has some limitations. To address these problems, investigators developed transgenic mice that express enhanced green fluorescent protein (GFP) directed by the promoter for choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), the acetylcholine synthetic enzyme. Although, it was reported that these mice express GFP in all cholinergic neurons and non-neuronal cholinergic cells, we could not detect GFP in cardiac cholinergic nerves in preliminary experiments. Our goals for this study were to confirm our initial observation and perform a qualitative screen of other representative autonomic structures for the presences of GFP in cholinergic innervation of effector tissues. We evaluated GFP fluorescence of intact, unfixed tissues and the cellular localization of GFP and vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT), a specific cholinergic marker, in tissue sections and intestinal whole mounts. Our experiments identified two major tissues where cholinergic neurons and/or nerve fibers lacked GFP: 1) most cholinergic neurons of the intrinsic cardiac ganglia and all cholinergic nerve fibers in the heart and 2) most cholinergic nerve fibers innervating airway smooth muscle. Most cholinergic neurons in airway ganglia stained for GFP. Cholinergic systems in the bladder and intestines were fully delineated by GFP staining. GFP labeling of input to ganglia with long preganglionic projections (vagal) was sparse or weak, while that to ganglia with short preganglionic projections (spinal) was strong. Total absence of GFP might be due to splicing out of the GFP gene. Lack of GFP in nerve projections from GFP-positive cell bodies might reflect a transport deficiency.

No description available.

The spleen is a key participant in the pathophysiology of sepsis and inflammatory disease. Many splenocytes exhibit a cholinergic phenotype, but our knowledge regarding their cholinergic biology and how they are affected by sepsis is incomplete. We evaluated effects of acute sepsis on the spleen using the cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) model in C57BL/6 and ChATBAC-eGFP mice. Quantification of cholinergic gene expression showed that choline acetyltransferase and vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT) are present and that VAChT is upregulated in sepsis, suggesting increased capacity for release of acetylcholine (ACh). High affinity choline transporter is not expressed but organic acid transporters are, providing additional mechanisms for release. Flow cytometry studies identified subpopulations of cholinergic T and B cells as well as monocytes/macrophages. Neither abundance nor GFP intensity of cholinergic T cells changed in sepsis, suggesting that ACh synthetic capacity was not altered. Spleens have low acetylcholinesterase activity, and the enzyme is localized primarily in red pulp, characteristics expected to favor cholinergic signaling. For cellular studies, ACh was quantified by mass spectroscopy using d4-ACh internal standard. Isolated splenocytes from male mice contain more ACh than females, suggesting the potential for gender-dependent differences in cholinergic immune function. Isolated splenocytes exhibit basal ACh release, which can be increased by isoproterenol (4 and 24 h) or by T cell activation with antibodies to CD3 and CD28 (24 h). Collectively, these data support the concept that sepsis enhances cholinergic function in the spleen and that release of ACh can be triggered by stimuli via different mechanisms.

Neuronal alterations resulting from exposure to Parkinsonian-inducing 1-methyl-4- phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) in an in vitro model SH-SYSY human neuroblastoma cells were explored using cytotoxic effects, neurochemical changes and pathological injury as endpoints. The results suggested that: MPTP entered the SH-SYS5Y human neuroblastoma cells through a non-dopamine transport mechanism, and was metabolized to 1-methyl-4-phenyl-2,3-dihydropyridium (MPDP⁺) and 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridium (MPP⁺) by monoamine oxidase (MAO). MPP⁺, the neurotoxic analog of MPTP, was taken up into cells through a dopamine (DA) uptake mechanism. MPTP, via its metabolite MPP⁺, inhibited NADH dehydrogenase activity. The MPTP-induced alterations of morphology included formation of blebs, attenuated neutrites, abnormal mitochondria with electron-density of matrix and disorganization of cristae, and abnormal aggregation of filamentous material of the cytoskeleton. MPTP was neurotoxic to the dopaminergic system, inhibiting monoamine oxidase (MAO) activity, and decreasing levels of dopamine (DA) and other catecholamines. In addition, MPTP enhanced ³H-DA release from cells, and its metabolite MPP⁺ inhibited ³H-DA uptake. MPTP was found to directly act on the cholinergic system in SH-SY5Y cells, causing dose-related decreases in the binding at muscarinic and nicotinic receptors. MPTP also inhibited acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity and increased choline levels. The MPTP-induced increase in DA release and the decreases in catecholamines in SH-SYSY cells were blocked by pretreatment with acetylcholine receptor antagonists atropine and d-tubocurarine. MPTP caused increases in tau proteins, and also caused an increased expression of the reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) product after treatment for 2 to 5 days at 10⁻³ to 10⁻⁴ M. The results, for the first time, demonstrated that MPTP affected cytoskeletal associated tau protein and altered its mRNA. These results demonstrated that the human neuroblastoma cell line, SH-SYSY, can be used as an in vitro model for the study of the neurotoxicity of MPTP, including the mechanisms associated with exposure to this neurotoxicitant. / Ph. D.

Objectifs: Plusieurs polymorphismes nucléaires localisés sur les gènes des récepteurs nicotiniques cholinergiques CHRN sont associés au tabagisme. Cependant, peu d’études ont examiné l’association entre les polymorphismes sur les gènes CHRN et l’étourdissement. Les polymorphismes et les symptômes subjectifs sont peu être lié à la dépendance à la nicotine et à l’étourdissement ressenti lors de l’initiation. Le but de cette étude est d’étudier l’association entre 61 polymorphismes sur huit gènes CHRN (CHRNA3 CHRNA4 CHRNA5, CHRNA6, CHRNA7, CHRNB2, CHRNB3, CHRNB4) et l’étourdissement ressenti lors de l’initiation. Méthodes: Les données provenant d'une étude de cohorte longitudinale composée de 1293 étudiants, ont été analysées selon un devis d'étude gène-candidat. Les données ont été collectées par le biais de questionnaires auto-reportés aux troix mois, durant 5 ans. L’ADN provenent de la salive ou du sang a été génotypé pour 61 polymosphismes localisés sur les gènes CHRN ont été génotypés, à l'aide d'une stratégie de couverture maximale du gène. L'équation d'analyse est une régression logistique, incluant un ajustement sur l’âge, le sexe et l’origine ethnique. Résultats: Trois SNPs sur le gène CHRNA6 (rs7812298, rs2304297, rs7828365) sont associés à notre phénotype (OR (95% CI)= 0.54 (0.36, 0.81), 0.59 (0.40, 0.86) and 0.58 (0.36, 0.95, respectivement),. Trois autres polymorphismes (rs3743077 (CHRNA3), rs755204 (CHRNA4), rs7178176 (CHRNA7)) sont également associés à phénotype (OR (95% CI)=1.40 (1.02, 1.90), 1.85 (1.05, 3.27) and 1.51 (1.06, 2.15), respectivement) Conclusion: Plusieurs SNPs localisés sur les gènes CHRN sont associés à l'étourdissement, un phénotype de l'initiation qui est peut-être associé à la dépendance à la nicotine. / Background: Numerous single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in multiple nicotinic receptor genes (CHRN) are associated with smoking. However few studies have examined the association between CHRN SNPs and subjective responses to smoking which may relate to sustained smoking, such as dizziness at first inhalation. The objective of this study was to investigate the association between 61 SNPs in eight CHRN genes (CHRNA3 CHRNA4 CHRNA5, CHRNA6, CHRNA7, CHRNB2, CHRNB3, CHRNB4) and dizziness at first inhalation. Methods: Data were available in a longitudinal cohort investigation of 1293 students 12-13 years old at baseline. Students completed self-report questionnaires at-school every 3 months for 5 years during secondary school, and a mailed self-report questionnaire three years later. DNA extracted from blood or saliva was genotyped for 61 CHRN SNPs selected using a gene tagging approach. Associations were modeled using logistic regression controlling for sex, race and age at first cigarette. Results: The minor alleles of three SNPs in CHRNA6 (rs7812298, rs2304297, rs7828365) were associated a decreased probability of dizziness (OR (95% CI)=0.54(0.36, 0.81), 0.59(0.40,0.86) and 0.58(0.36,0.95, respectively), while one SNP in each of three other genes (rs3743077 (CHRNA3), rs755204 (CHRNA4), rs7178176 (CHRNA7)) was associated with an increased probability of dizziness (OR(95% CI)=1.40 (1.02,1.90), 1.85(1.05,3.27) and 1.51(1.06,2.15), respectively). Conclusion: Thus, several SNPs located in CHRN genes are associated with dizziness at first inhalation, a smoking initiation phenotype that may relate to sustained smoking.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is an anxiety disorder that may follow exposure to severe emotional trauma and presents with various symptoms of anxiety, hyperarousal and cognitive anomalies. Interestingly, only 10-30% of an exposed population will go on to develop full-blown PTSD. Cholinergic neurotransmission is implicated in anxiety as well as other typical manifestations of PTSD, particularly cognitive changes. The frontal cortex and hippocampus regulate and in turn are affected by stress, and have also been implicated in the underlying neuropathology of PTSD. These areas are densely innervated by cholinergic neurons originating from the basal forebrain. In this study, the time dependent sensitization (TDS) model was used to induce symptoms of PTSD in animals. The study was designed to determine the long-term effects of an intense, prolonged aversive procedure on central muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) characteristics and the correlation if any of those findings to cognitive aspects and general arousal as characteristics associated with PTSD. In order to achieve this goal, male Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to the TDS stress paradigm with behavioral/neuro-receptor assessments performed on day 7 post re-stress (duration of each experiment in whole is 14 days). Acoustic startle reflex (ASR) was used to determine emotional state (hyperarousal), while the conditioned taste aversion (CTA) paradigm was implemented in order to assess aversive memory. Muscarinic receptor binding studies were performed in the frontal cortex and hippocampus. Moreover, both the stress-exposed and control animals were pre-tested in the acoustic startle chamber in order to attempt to separate stress sensitive from stress-resilient animals based on predetermined ASR criteria. The ASR niodel was previously validated in our laboratory, while the CTA model was validated in this project before application. In the CTA model, an i.p. injection with lithium chloride (LiCl) (associated with digestive malaise), was used as unconditioned stimulus (US) and was paired with a saccharinlcyclamate drinking solution as conditioned stimulus (CS) to induce aversion to the novel taste (CS) when presented in the absence of the US. Population data of animals tested in the ASR experiment indicated no statistical significant difference between stressed and control animals. However, when each animal was assessed individually, 22.5 % of the exposed population displayed all increase above the predetermined criteria of 35 % in startle response, indicating a state of heightened arousal. In contrast, only 4.2 O h of control animals (no stress) displayed an increase in arousal based on the above mentioned criteria. Muscarinic receptor densities (Bm,) in the total population of animals exposed to stress showed a statistical significant increase in both the hippocampus and frontal cortex when compared to controls, with no changes in & values observed in either one of the areas. In the CTA experiment, TDS stress was implemented as US paired with a saccharinlcyclamate drinking solution as CS. An acute session of prolonged stress (as used in the TDS model) effectively induced aversion to a novel taste and a subsequent reminder of the stress (restress) paired with the CS sustained the acquire adversive memory. Furthermore, LiCl was reintroduced as US in order to assess the effect of prior exposure to two types of stress (acute and TDS) on subsequently acquired CTA memory. Prior exposure to acute stress had no significant effect on subsequently acquired aversive memory when measured either 3- or 7 days post-conditioning (CS-US). Stress-restress (TDS) exposure, however, indicated a significant decrease in aversive memory from 3- to 7 days post-conditioning (CS-US) as well as a significant decrease in aversive memory between the control- and the TDS group 7 days post-conditioning. The mAChR density (B,,) in the frontal cortex; but not in the hippocampus, was elevated at the same point in time (7 days post CS-US pairing) that CTA memory was impaired following TDS stress (stress-restress). Ultimately, these data support an association between altered cholinergic receptors and hyperarousallanxiety in an animal model of PTSD. The data also support the phenomenon of individual susceptibility to stress in animals that parallels that observed in humans exposed to severe trauma. Impaired aversive memory (CTA) is a consequence of prior exposure to TDS stress, but not acute stress, and is likewise mediated by an altered central cholinergic transmission displayed as an increase in mAChRs in the frontal cortex. The lack of studies regarding the influence of the cholinergic system in PTSD related behavior earns ,this project value as inimitable PTSD research. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmacology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

Objectifs: Plusieurs polymorphismes nucléaires localisés sur les gènes des récepteurs nicotiniques cholinergiques CHRN sont associés au tabagisme. Cependant, peu d’études ont examiné l’association entre les polymorphismes sur les gènes CHRN et l’étourdissement. Les polymorphismes et les symptômes subjectifs sont peu être lié à la dépendance à la nicotine et à l’étourdissement ressenti lors de l’initiation. Le but de cette étude est d’étudier l’association entre 61 polymorphismes sur huit gènes CHRN (CHRNA3 CHRNA4 CHRNA5, CHRNA6, CHRNA7, CHRNB2, CHRNB3, CHRNB4) et l’étourdissement ressenti lors de l’initiation. Méthodes: Les données provenant d'une étude de cohorte longitudinale composée de 1293 étudiants, ont été analysées selon un devis d'étude gène-candidat. Les données ont été collectées par le biais de questionnaires auto-reportés aux troix mois, durant 5 ans. L’ADN provenent de la salive ou du sang a été génotypé pour 61 polymosphismes localisés sur les gènes CHRN ont été génotypés, à l'aide d'une stratégie de couverture maximale du gène. L'équation d'analyse est une régression logistique, incluant un ajustement sur l’âge, le sexe et l’origine ethnique. Résultats: Trois SNPs sur le gène CHRNA6 (rs7812298, rs2304297, rs7828365) sont associés à notre phénotype (OR (95% CI)= 0.54 (0.36, 0.81), 0.59 (0.40, 0.86) and 0.58 (0.36, 0.95, respectivement),. Trois autres polymorphismes (rs3743077 (CHRNA3), rs755204 (CHRNA4), rs7178176 (CHRNA7)) sont également associés à phénotype (OR (95% CI)=1.40 (1.02, 1.90), 1.85 (1.05, 3.27) and 1.51 (1.06, 2.15), respectivement) Conclusion: Plusieurs SNPs localisés sur les gènes CHRN sont associés à l'étourdissement, un phénotype de l'initiation qui est peut-être associé à la dépendance à la nicotine. / Background: Numerous single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in multiple nicotinic receptor genes (CHRN) are associated with smoking. However few studies have examined the association between CHRN SNPs and subjective responses to smoking which may relate to sustained smoking, such as dizziness at first inhalation. The objective of this study was to investigate the association between 61 SNPs in eight CHRN genes (CHRNA3 CHRNA4 CHRNA5, CHRNA6, CHRNA7, CHRNB2, CHRNB3, CHRNB4) and dizziness at first inhalation. Methods: Data were available in a longitudinal cohort investigation of 1293 students 12-13 years old at baseline. Students completed self-report questionnaires at-school every 3 months for 5 years during secondary school, and a mailed self-report questionnaire three years later. DNA extracted from blood or saliva was genotyped for 61 CHRN SNPs selected using a gene tagging approach. Associations were modeled using logistic regression controlling for sex, race and age at first cigarette. Results: The minor alleles of three SNPs in CHRNA6 (rs7812298, rs2304297, rs7828365) were associated a decreased probability of dizziness (OR (95% CI)=0.54(0.36, 0.81), 0.59(0.40,0.86) and 0.58(0.36,0.95, respectively), while one SNP in each of three other genes (rs3743077 (CHRNA3), rs755204 (CHRNA4), rs7178176 (CHRNA7)) was associated with an increased probability of dizziness (OR(95% CI)=1.40 (1.02,1.90), 1.85(1.05,3.27) and 1.51(1.06,2.15), respectively). Conclusion: Thus, several SNPs located in CHRN genes are associated with dizziness at first inhalation, a smoking initiation phenotype that may relate to sustained smoking.

Le système cholinergique joue un rôle important dans de nombreuses fonctions cognitives telles que l'attention et l'apprentissage perceptuel. La stimulation pharmacologique du système cholinergique par le donépézil, un inhibiteur de l’acétylcholinestérase, est un moyen efficace pour améliorer les fonctions cognitives et le traitement cortical via les récepteurs muscariniques et nicotiniques. En effet, le donépézil permet l'accumulation d'acétylcholine dans la fente synaptique. Toutefois, l’effet de la stimulation pharmacologique du système cholinergique sur le traitement visuel complexe et l’apprentissage perceptuel n’est pas encore bien défini. L'objectif de cette thèse est d'étudier, d'une part, l'effet de la combinaison d’un entrainement visuel répétitif avec une stimulation cholinergique sur les capacités visuelles chez le rat et l’humain et, d'autre part, l’effet de la stimulation pharmacologique du système cholinergique sur la restauration des capacités visuelles dans un modèle de déficit visuel chez les rats. Nos résultats ont montré qu’un entrainement visuel/cholinergique entraînait : 1) une potentialisation à long terme de la réponse visuelle corticale chez le rat, 2) une récupération plus rapide des capacités visuelles chez la rat suite un écrasement du nerf optique 3) une amélioration de la performance dans une tâche perceptivo-cognitive de haut niveau plus rapide et conservée dans le temps chez les jeunes sujets sains. Le patron d’électroencéphalographie chez le sujet humain pratiquant une tâche d’attention visuelle n’est cependant pas modifié par l’administration d’une dose unique de donépézil. Ensembles, ces résultats soulignent le bénéfice considérable de la combinaison d’une stimulation du système cholinergique lors de l’entrainement visuel répétitif afin d'obtenir des améliorations de la perception visuelle. Cela présente une avenue très intéressante pour la réhabilitation chez les humains. / The cholinergic system plays an important role in many cognitive functions such as attention and perceptual learning. Pharmacological stimulation of the cholinergic system via donepezil, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, is an efficient tool for enhancing cognitive functions and cortical processing via muscarinic and nicotinic receptors. In fact, donepezil allows the build-up of acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft. However, whether pharmacological manipulation of the cholinergic system has an effect on complex visual processing and perceptual learning remains unclear. The goal of this thesis is to investigate on the one hand the effect of combining repetitive visual training with cholinergic enhancement on visual capacities in rats and humans and on the other hand the effect of the pharmacological stimulation of the cholinergic system on visual restoration in a model of visual deficit in rats. Our results showed that cholinergic potentiation induces 1) a long-term potentiation of visual cortical response following repetitive visual stimulation, 2) a faster recovery of brightness discrimination in rats with an optic nerve crush, 3) a faster progression of and a sustained performance in a highly demanding perceptual-cognitive task for healthy young humans. However, the EEG pattern for subjects performing a visual attention task is not modified by a single administration of donepezil. Together these results underline the substantial benefice of combining cholinergic enhancement with visual training in order to obtain visual perception improvements, which presents an interesting avenue for visual rehabilitation paradigm in humans.

Muitos subtipos de receptores são ativados pelo mesmo ligante, mas estão acoplados a diferentes mensageiros secundários podendo produzir sinalização divergente em uma célula, enquanto receptores ativados por diferentes ligantes, mas que compartilham o mesmo mensageiro secundário, podem produzir sinalização convergente. Para examinar as bases mecanísticas que influenciam a proliferação e a diferenciação celular determinamos as funções de liberação intracelular de Ca2+ e a excitabilidade celular mediada pelos receptores purinérgicos e colinérgicos utilizando imageamento de cálcio por microscopia confocal. Para tanto, caracterizamos a participação dos subtipos P2X1-7 e P2Y1,2,4,6 de receptores purinérgicos aos níveis dos transcritos de mRNA e de expressão protéica, assim como pela atividade de induzir os transientes de [Ca2+]i, aumento na concentração livre de cálcio intracelular, durante a diferenciação neuronal de células P19 de carcinoma embrionário, que foram utilizadas como modelo in vitro para o desenvolvimento neuronal precoce. Em células embriônicas os receptores P2Y1,2, P2X4 ou os heteromultímeros de P2X com farmacologia semelhante ao do receptor P2X4 foram os responsáveis pelos transientes de [Ca2+]i induzidos pelo ATP e seus análogos. Ao término da diferenciação neuronal, os receptores P2Y2,6 e P2X2 foram os principais mediadores das respostas de [Ca2+]i. Obtivemos evidências do envolvimento destes receptores na indução da proliferação tanto de células embriônicas como de progenitores neuronais, por ensaios de incorporação de BrdU, e da indução da diferenciação neuronal das células progenitoras, na presença de vários agonistas e antagonistas de receptores purinérgicos. Como resultado desses estudos, a regulação da proliferação e diferenciação celular foi principalmente devida aos subtipos de receptores P2Y1 e P2Y2, já que estes efeitos foram eliminados após a depleção dos depósitos intracelulares de cálcio e pela demonstração de que estes eram os possíveis receptores funcionais. Entre os receptores colinérgicos, fornecemos evidências para a expressão de receptores nicotínicos (nAChRs) e muscarínicos (mAChRs) funcionais durante a diferenciação de células P19. Detectamos a expressão e a atividade dos subtipos de nAChRs formados pelos subtipos α2-α7, β2, β4 e M1-M3 e M5 de mAChRs durante a diferenciação neuronal. As respostas de [Ca2+]i induzidas pelos agonistas dos nAChRs foram observadas em células P19 embriônicas e neuronais. As respostas de [Ca2+]i mediadas pelos receptores muscarínicos, em níveis próximos aos basais em células embriônicas, aumentaram durante a diferenciação. As elevações na [Ca2+]i induzidas pelos nAChRs em células indiferenciadas foram devidas ao influxo de Ca2+ do meio extracelular. Em células diferenciadas em neurônios, os aumentos de transientes de [Ca2+]i induzidos pelos nAChRs foram parcialmente inibidas após o pré-tratamento das células com a rianodina, enquanto as respostas de [Ca2+]i mediadas pelos mAChR não foram afetadas na presença deste composto, sugerindo uma contribuição da liberação de Ca2+ a partir dos depósitos de Ca2+ sensíveis à rianodina para as elevações mediadas pelos nAChRs. Demonstramos também, que a nicotina, agindo através dos nAChRs, inibiu a proliferação em células embriônicas, porém, a induziu em células progenitoras neuronais pela mobilização de Ca2+ dos depósitos intracelulares. A muscarina induziu em células embriônicas o aumento na proliferação via mAChRs acoplados às proteínas Gαq/11, e promoveu a diferenciação neuronal via M2 mAChRs em células precursoras neuronais. Estes dados sugeriram que a acetilcolina agindo via mAChR funciona como um mitógeno que ativa as proteínas quinases de trifosfato de inositol (IP3) e que poderia estar envolvida na síntese de DNA durante os estágios iniciais da neurogênese. Nós ainda provemos evidências que as oscilações de [Ca2+]i são características para cada estágio da diferenciação e são iniciadas pela liberação de Ca2+ mediada pelo IP3. As análises da determinação do fenótipo neuronal na presença de vários inibidores da transdução do sinal induzido pelo cálcio residem na liberação de Ca2+ induzida pelo IP3 é necessária para o progresso da diferenciação neuronal. Assim, os sinais espontâneos de [Ca2+]i são propriedades intrínsecas das células em diferenciação. A modulação de sua freqüência e amplitudes especifica a aquisição de um fenótipo de célula neuronal. / Various receptors subtypes are activated by the same ligand although coupled to different second messengers. These receptors act either by inducing divergent signaling in one cell, whereas in another cell different receptors may stimulate the very same pathways producing convergent signaling. We have characterized intracellular Ca2+- release and -influx mediated by purinergic and cholinergic receptors using calcium imaging by confocal microscopy to evaluate the mechanistic bases which influence cell proliferation and differentiation We have characterized the participation of purinergic subtypes P2X1-7 and P2Y1,2,4,6 receptor subtypes at mRNA transcription and protein expression levels as well as receptor-induced changes in free intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i) during differentiation of P19 embryonal carcinoma cells as an in vitro model for early neuronal development. The participation of individual P2X and P2Y receptor subtypes in the differentiation process was studied by employing different available purinergic receptor agonists and antagonists. In embryonic cells, P2Y1,2, P2X4 receptors, or P2X-heteromultimers with similar P2X4 pharmacology were responsible for ATP and ATP-analog-induced [Ca2+]i transients. Following completion of neuronal differentiation, P2Y2,6 receptors and P2X2 subtypes were the major mediators of the [Ca2+]i-response. Regulation of cell proliferation and differentiation of P19 embryonic and progenitor cells was mostly due to P2Y1 and P2Y2 receptor activation, as these effects were abolished following depletion of intracellular calcium stores, and they are probably the unique functional P2Y receptors at these stages of differentiation. We also provide evidence for expression of functional nicotinic (nAChRs) and muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) during neuronal differentiation of P19 cells. We have detected expression and activity of nAChRs formed by the subunits α2-α7, β2, β4, and M1-M3 and M5 mAChR subtypes along the differentiation process. Receptor response in terms of nicotinic agonist-evoked Ca2+ flux was observed in embryonic and neuronal-differentiated cells. However, mAChRs-induced calcium responses, merely present in undifferentiated P19 cells, increased during neuronal differentiation. The nAChR-induced [Ca2+]i response in undifferentiated cells was due to Ca2+ influx. However, in differentiated P19 neurons the nAChR-induced [Ca2+]i response was partially inhibited following pretreatment of the cells with ryanodine, while the mAChR-induced response remained unaffected, suggesting the contribution of Ca2+ release from ryanodine-sensitive stores to nAChR- but not mAChR-mediated Ca2+ responses. The presence of functional nAChRs in embryonic cells suggests that these receptors are involved in triggering Ca2+ waves during initial neuronal differentiation. In the present study we have also shown that nicotine, acting via nAChRs, inhibited proliferation in embryonic cells, but induced cell division of progenitor cells by Ca2+ mobilization from internal stores. Stimulation of progenitor cells by muscarine led to an increase in DNA synthesis mainly resulting from activation of Gαq/11-coupled mAChRs. Muscarine as well promoted differentiation of neural precursor cells by activation of M2 mAChRs subtypes. These data suggest that acetylcholine, acting via mAChRs, functions as a mitogen during early neurogenesis. We also provide evidence that oscillations of [Ca2+]i as characteristics for the respective stage of differentiation are initiated by triphosphate inositol (IP3)-mediated Ca2+-release. Neuronal cell fate determination analysis in the presence of various inhibitors of calcium-induced signal transduction underlined that IP3-mediated Ca2+-release is necessary for neuronal differentiation progress. Thus, spontaneous Ca2+-signals are an intrinsic property of differentiating neural precursor cells. Modulation of their frequency and amplitude is believed to direct the acquisition of a defined neuronal phenotype.

Os receptores nicotínicos de acetilcolina (colinérgicos) (nAChRs) neuronais são proteínas integrais de membrana e pertencem à família de canais iônicos controlados por ligante, compostos por subunidades α e β. Esses receptores desempenham um papel-chave na transmissão de sinal entre os neurônios nos sistemas nervoso central e periférico. O subtipo α3β4, por exemplo, é o nAChR neuronal mais expresso no sistema nervoso autônomo; nAChRs contendo a subunidade α3 estão presentes em alta densidade no gânglio cervical superior, glândulas pineal e adrenais. Também estão presentes na substancia nigra, striatum, hipocampo, locus ceruleus, tracto habênulo-interpeduncular e cerebelo. Os nAChRs são inibidos por uma variedade de substâncias químicas, incluindo toxinas naturais, anestésicos locais, drogas de abuso (por, exemplo, cocaína) e compostos clinicamente importantes (tranqüilizantes, por exemplo). O mecanismo de inibição desses receptores tem sido investigado intensivamente. Neste estudo, nós investigamos o mecanismo pelo qual a tacrina (9-1,2,3,4-tetraidroaminoacridina), um agente usado clinicamente no tratamento da doença de Alzheimer, inibe o nAChR α3β4 de rato recombinante expresso nas células KXα3β4R2, utilizando uma técnica de cinética química rápida. A constante de dissociação da nicotina do sítio que controla a ativação do receptor, Kd, é 23 µM e a constante de equilíbrio de abertura do canal, Φ-1, é 4. A tacrina inibe o receptor competitivamente, com um KI de 0,77 µM. / Neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine (cholinergic) receptors (nAChRs) are integral membrane proteins and belong to the family of ligand-gated cation channels composed by α and β subunits. These receptors play a key role in the signal transmission between neurons in the central and peripheral nervous system. The α3β4 subtype, for example, is the most expressed neuronal nAChR in autonomic ganglia; α3-containing nAChRs are present at particularly high density in the superior cervical ganglia, pineal, and adrenal glands. They are also present in the substancia nigra, striatum, hippocampus, locus ceruleus, habenulo-interpeduncular tract and cerebellum. The nAChRs are inhibited by a variety of chemical substances, including natural toxins, local anesthetics, abused drugs (e.g., cocaine) and clinically important compounds (e.g., tranquilizers). The mechanism of inhibition of these receptors has been intensively investigated. In this study, we investigated the mechanism by which tacrine (9-1,2,3,4-tetahydroaminoacridine), an agent used clinically to treat Alzheimers disease, inhibits the recombinant rat α3β4 nAChR expressed in KXα3β4R2 cells, using a rapid chemical kinetic technique. The nicotine dissociation constant for the site controlling receptor activation, Kd, is 23 µM and the channel-opening equilibrium constant, Φ-1, is 4. Tacrine inhibits the receptor competitively, with a KI of 0.77 µM.