Le système cholinergique basalo-cortical joue un rôle crucial dans la régulation de la fonction visuelle grâce à son contrôle sur le cortex visuel primaire (V1). Ce système influence particulièrement la plasticité corticale, les processus d'attention et les mécanismes d'apprentissage. Les neurones cholinergiques, en particulier, jouent un rôle fondamental dans les processus d'attention et les mécanismes d'apprentissage, deux aspects clés de la cognition. Une caractéristique remarquable de ce système est sa capacité à moduler la fonction des neurones visuels. La stimulation des neurones cholinergiques, par exemple, peut entraîner une augmentation du fonctionnement de ces neurones, ce qui se traduit par une amélioration de leur sélectivité pour des tâches visuelles spécifiques. Un exemple frappant de cet effet est observé dans la sensibilité au contraste, une fonction cruciale pour la perception visuelle. Dans ce contexte, notre étude cherche à explorer et à comparer les caractéristiques distinctes de la libération d'acétylcholine (ACh) et de l'activité neuronale au sein du cortex visuel. Nous nous concentrons particulièrement sur les variations de contraste et de mouvement, deux éléments essentiels de l'environnement visuel, pour mieux comprendre comment le système cholinergique influence ces aspects de la perception visuelle. Pour ce faire, nous avons recours à l'imagerie mésoscopique, une technique avancée permettant d'observer l'activité calcique et cholinergique au niveau neuronal. L'imagerie mésoscopique de l'activité calcique et cholinergique a été réalisée chez des souris transgéniques de Thy1-gCAMP6s et des souris gACh-3.0 (senseur d’ACh transfecté par un virus adeno-associé). Dans cette étude, nous avons utilisé un réseau sinusoïdal horizontal de fréquence spatiale de 0,3 cycles par degré et de contraste variable de 30%, 50%, 75%, et 100%. La stimulation sur des moniteurs a inclus 10 répétitions de 2 secondes, avec des intervalles de 8 secondes. L’amplitude maximale des signaux calcique et cholinergiques a été calculée à l'aide d'un système d'imagerie optique modulaire et d'une caméra scientifique complémentaire métal-oxyde-semi-conducteur, CMOS. Ces mesures ont été effectuées au niveau du V1 ainsi que des zones extrastriées, y compris le cortex occipital latéral (LM), le cortex temporal intermédiaire postérieur (PM) et lateral (AL). L'examen des variationsde l'ACh et des signaux de calcium a été effectué en utilisant l'outil universal mesoscale Imaging dans le logiciel MATLAB. Des changements significatifs dépendant du contraste des signaux provenant de l'indicateur cholinergique (ACh) et calcium (Ca)ont été observés dans toutes les zones visuelles étudiées, à savoir V1, AL et PM, à l'exception de LM. Par exemple, l'amplitude moyenne pour groupe de l'expérience gACh 3.0 a été multipliée par trois lorsque l'on compare la condition de 30 % à la condition de 100 % et pour le groupe gCAMP6s plus de trois fois dans le cortex visuel primaire. En outre, la latence pour la zone V1 a été mesurée, révélant une diminution du temps de réaction à mesure que l'intensité du stimulus augmentait en fonction du contraste, statistiquement significatif pour le groupe gCAMP6s mais non statistiquement significatif pour gACh3.0. La sensibilité au mouvement a été étudiée quant à elle grâce à la projection d’un kinématogramme de points aléatoires (RDK) dont la cohérence de direction variait (de 30%, 50%, 75%, à 100%). Ni le signal calcique si celui d’ACh était sensible à la variation de la cohérence de mouvement. L'efficacité du donepezil (0.1 et 1mg/kg), qui potentialise la transmission cholinergique, était dépendante de la dose et augmentait la libération d’ACh signal mais pas le signal calcique. L’antagonisme des récepteurs muscarinique à l’ACh par la scopolamine (1mg/kg), diminuait le signal calcique. L'activité à l'état de repos présentait une corrélation modeste entre les différentes aires corticales et n’a pas été affectée par le DPZ dans le groupe gACh3.0. Cependant, dans le groupe de la gCAMP6s, les corrélations ont été renforcées après l'administration des injections. En conclusion, les résultats ont révélé une sensibilité accrue au contraste pour la signalisation du calcium et de l'ACh, où les signaux de calcium ont montré une plus grande activation par rapport aux signaux cholinergiques. Cependant les signaux n’étaient pas sensibles à la cohérence des points en mouvement. Conclusion : La libération d’ACh varie en fonction du stimulus visuel et semble avoir un impact sur l’intensité de la réponse neuronale au stimulus. Les médicaments cholinergiques et anticholinergiques, en particulier lorsqu'ils sont administrés à des doses élevées, peuvent induire des altérations de l'amplitude de l’activité corticale. / The basalo-cortical cholinergic system plays a crucial role in the regulation of visual function through its control over the precise adjustment of cortical processing. This system particularly influences cortical plasticity, attentional processes, and learning mechanisms. Cholinergic neurons, in particular, play a critical role in attention processes and learning mechanisms, which are key aspects of cognition. A notable feature of this system is its ability to modulate the function of visual neurons. For instance, stimulation of cholinergic neurons can lead to an enhanced operation of these neurons, resulting in improved selectivity for specific visual tasks. This effect is prominently observed in contrast sensitivity, a crucial function for visual perception. In this context, our study aims to explore and compare the distinct characteristics of acetylcholine (ACh) release and neuronal activity within the visual cortex. We are especially focused on variations in contrast and motion, two essential components of the visual environment, to better understand how the cholinergic system influences these aspects of visual perception. To achieve this, we employ mesoscopic imaging, an advanced technique for observing calcium and cholinergic activity at the neuronal level. Mesoscopic imaging of calcium and cholinergic activity was conducted in Thy1-gCAMP6s transgenic mice and gACh-3.0 mice (ACh sensor transduced by adeno-associated virus). In this study, we used a horizontal sinusoidal grating of 0.3 cycles per degree spatial frequency with varying contrast levels of 30%, 50%, 75%, and 100%. Stimulation on BenQ monitors included 10 repetitions of 2 seconds, with 8-second intervals. The maximum amplitude of calcium and cholinergic signals was calculated using a modular optical imaging system and a complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor, CMOS, scientific camera. These measurements were taken at V1 and extrastriate areas, including the lateral occipital cortex (LM), posterior intermediate temporal cortex (PM), and lateral (AL). Examination of ACh and calcium signal variations was performed using the universal mesoscale Imaging tool in MATLAB software. Significant contrast-dependent changes in cholinergic (ACh) and calcium (Ca) indicator signals were observed in all visual areas studied, namely V1, AL, and PM, except for LM. For instance, the mean amplitude for the gACh 3.0 experimental group was tripled when comparing the 30% to the 100% condition, and for the gcamp6s group, it was more than tripled in the primary visual cortex. Moreover, the latency for the V1 area was measured, revealing a decrease in reaction time as stimulus intensity increased according to contrast statistically significant for gCAMP6s group but not significant for gACh3.0. Motion sensitivity was studied by projecting a random dot kinematogram with varying directional coherence (from 30%, 50%, 75%, to 100%). Neither the CaS nor the ACh signal was sensitive to variation in motion coherence. The efficacy of DPZ (0.1 and 1mg/kg), which potentiates cholinergic transmission, was dose-dependent and increased ACh release but not calcium signal. Muscarinic ACh receptor antagonism by scopolamine (1mg/kg) decreased calcium signaling. Resting-state activity correlated modestly between the different cortical areas and was not affected by DPZ in the gACh3.0 group. The resting state activity exhibited a modest correlation and was infrequently impacted by treatments in the gACh3.0 group. However, in the gCAMP6s group, both positive and negative correlations were enhanced subsequent to the administration of injections. As a conclusion, the research findings revealed a strong contrast sensitivity of both calcium and ACh signalling, wherein calcium signals exhibited greater activation compared to ACh signals. The influence of ACh on visual processing is thus shown at a very low cognitive level. The signals were not changed by the coherence of moving dots. Cholinergic and anticholinergic drugs, particularly when administered in high dosages, influence the visual processing.

Grundlage der vorgelegten Arbeit sind die bei der Alzheimerschen Erkrankung beobachtbaren pathologischen Merkmale, wie die progressive Akkumulation von β-Amyloid-Plaques, cholinerger Dysfunktion und zerebrovaskuläre Abnormalitäten. Die in englischer Sprache verfasste Dissertation ist eine tierexperimentelle Studie, die versucht, den Zusammenhang von β-Amyloid, cholinerger Neurotransmission und zerebralem Gefäßsystem bei der Alzheimerschen Erkrankung näher zu charakterisieren. An Hirnmaterial aus der transgenen Maus Tg2576, die die schwedische Mutation des humanen Amyloidpräkursorproteins als Transgen trägt und ab dem 10. Lebensmonat durch humane β-Amyloid-Plaqueablagerungen in der Hirnrinde imponiert, wurden im Altersverlauf (4 bis 18 Monate) immunhistochemische Untersuchungen zur morphologischen Integrität der zerebralen Mikrogefäße, der kortikalen cholinergen Nervterminalen und der intrazerebralen cholinergen neurovaskulären Innervation durchgeführt. Am somatosensorischen Kortex werden beispielhaft die Expression des Glukosetransporters 1 oder Solanum tuberosum Lektin als Kapillarmarker und des vesikulären Acetylcholintransporters als Marker für cholinerge Fasern mittels Immunfluoreszenz und Laser-Scanning Mikroskopie erfasst, einer semiquantitativen Computer-gestützten Bildanalytischen Auswertung unterzogen und mit dem Ausmaß der kortikalen Plaquebeladung korreliert. So konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Dichte der Blutgefäße und cholinergen Fasern im somatosensorischen Kortex von transgenen Tieren mit dem Alter im Vergleich zu nichttransgenen Kontrolltieren abnimmt, was mit einer Reduktion der perivaskulären cholinergen Innervation einhergeht. Die erhobenen Befunde stützen die von J.C. de la Torre und T. Mussivand schon im Jahre 1993 formulierte „vaskuläre Hypothese“, wonach bei der sporadischen Form der Alzheimerschen Erkrankung alters- und Lebensstil-bedingte Schädigungen des zerebralen Gefäßsystems eine zentrale Rolle bei der Manifestierung der Erkrankung spielen.

L’acétylcholine (ACh) endogène de la corne dorsale de la moelle épinière (CDME) exerce une analgésie puissante utilisée en clinique, dont la source et les mécanismes demeurent inconnus. Elle siège probablement au niveau d’un plexus de fibres cholinergiques de la CDME d’origine non-élucidée. Dans ce contexte, nous avons pu établir que ce plexus est principalement issu d’interneurones cholinergiques spinaux caractérisés dans ces travaux, qui seraient donc le substrat probable de l’analgésie décrite. Décrits comme concourant aux effets aigus et analgésiques de la morphine, nous avons, par ailleurs, pu observer que les récepteurs de l’ACh participaient également aux effets chroniques et pro-algésique de la morphine, notamment au niveau de la CDME. Ceci place donc l’ACh comme un effecteur ou intermédiaire de la morphine.Nos travaux suggèrent ainsi que le système cholinergique spinal pourrait constituer une cible thérapeutique alternative pour de nouveaux traitements de la douleur / In the spinal cord dorsal horn (SCDH), endogenous acetylcholine (ACh) acts as a powerful analgesia, of clinical use. Though its source and mechanisms remain unravelled, this analgesia probably lies in a plexus of cholinergic fibers (PCF) located in the SCDH and of undetermined origin. In this context, we established that the PCF mainly originates from a spinal population of cholinergic interneurons, fully characterized in this work. These are, thus, the likely substrate of the spinal cholinergic analgesia.Besides, ACh receptors (AChR) partly mediate the analgesic acute effects of morphine. In this work, we also observed that a chronically-administered AChR agonist reproduces as well the pro-algesic effects of morphine in the same conditions. Thus, ACh appears as a possible intermediary or a final effecter of the morphine pain pathways.Our data suggest that the cholinergic system could become a new putative therapeutic target in pain management and treatment.

Grundlage der vorgelegten Arbeit sind die bei der Alzheimerschen Erkrankung beobachtbaren pathologischen Merkmale, wie die progressive Akkumulation von β-Amyloid-Plaques, cholinerger Dysfunktion und zerebrovaskuläre Abnormalitäten. Die in englischer Sprache verfasste Dissertation ist eine tierexperimentelle Studie, die versucht, den Zusammenhang von β-Amyloid, cholinerger Neurotransmission und zerebralem Gefäßsystem bei der Alzheimerschen Erkrankung näher zu charakterisieren. An Hirnmaterial aus der transgenen Maus Tg2576, die die schwedische Mutation des humanen Amyloidpräkursorproteins als Transgen trägt und ab dem 10. Lebensmonat durch humane β-Amyloid-Plaqueablagerungen in der Hirnrinde imponiert, wurden im Altersverlauf (4 bis 18 Monate) immunhistochemische Untersuchungen zur morphologischen Integrität der zerebralen Mikrogefäße, der kortikalen cholinergen Nervterminalen und der intrazerebralen cholinergen neurovaskulären Innervation durchgeführt. Am somatosensorischen Kortex werden beispielhaft die Expression des Glukosetransporters 1 oder Solanum tuberosum Lektin als Kapillarmarker und des vesikulären Acetylcholintransporters als Marker für cholinerge Fasern mittels Immunfluoreszenz und Laser-Scanning Mikroskopie erfasst, einer semiquantitativen Computer-gestützten Bildanalytischen Auswertung unterzogen und mit dem Ausmaß der kortikalen Plaquebeladung korreliert. So konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Dichte der Blutgefäße und cholinergen Fasern im somatosensorischen Kortex von transgenen Tieren mit dem Alter im Vergleich zu nichttransgenen Kontrolltieren abnimmt, was mit einer Reduktion der perivaskulären cholinergen Innervation einhergeht. Die erhobenen Befunde stützen die von J.C. de la Torre und T. Mussivand schon im Jahre 1993 formulierte „vaskuläre Hypothese“, wonach bei der sporadischen Form der Alzheimerschen Erkrankung alters- und Lebensstil-bedingte Schädigungen des zerebralen Gefäßsystems eine zentrale Rolle bei der Manifestierung der Erkrankung spielen.:CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Alzheimer’s disease 1 1.2 APP processing and β-amyloid production 2 1.3 Cholinergic dysfunction in Alzheimer’s disease 5 1.4 Cerebrovascular abnormalities in Alzheimer’s disease 8 1.5 Cholinergic innervation of intracortical cerebral microvessels 9 1.6 Transgenic Tg2576 mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease 11 1.7 Aim of study 14 CHAPTER 2: MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 Materials 15 2.1.1 Chemical reagents used 15 2.1.2 Biological reagents used 15 2.1.3 Preparation of solutions and buffers 15 2.1.4 Antibodies and reagents used for immunohistochemistry 17 2.1.5 Transgenic animals 19 2.2 Methods 20 2.2.1 Tissue preparation and sampling of sections 20 2.2.2 Immunohistochemistry 20 2.2.2.1 Protocol of immunofluorescent labeling 20 2.2.2.2 Protocol of immunoperoxidase labeling (ABC technique) 21 2.2.2.3 Combination of primary and secondary antibodies 22 2.2.2.4 Protocol of β–amyloid immunolabeling (Formic acid epitope retrieval method) 23 2.2.3 Histochemistry 23 2.2.3.1 Thioflavin S staining 23 2.2.3.2 Nissl staining 23 2.2.3.3 Solanum Tuberosum Lectin (STL) staining 24 2.2.4 Double and triple-coloured immuno-/ histochemical staining of brain sections 24 2.2.5 Microscopy and digital image processing 25 2.2.6 Morphological and morphometric analyses 25 2.2.6.1 Cortical microvessels 25 2.2.6.2 Cortical cholinergic innervation 27 2.2.6.2.1 Total density of VAChT-immunoreactivity 27 2.2.6.2.2 Estimation of the density of varicosities on cholinergic fibres 29 2.2.6.3 Estimation of cholinergic perivascular innervation of cortical microvessels 29 2.2.6.4 Three-dimensional-imaging of vessels innervation 30 2.2.7 Statistical analysis 30 CHAPTER 3: RESULTS 3.1 Developmental and amyloid plaque-related changes in cerebral cortical capillaries in transgenic Tg2576 Alzheimer mice 31 3.1.1 Morphological distribution of brain vessels in the cerebral cortex of wild type mice 31 3.1.2 Microvessel density under plaque burden 33 3.2 Developmental and amyloid plaque-related changes in cholinergic neurotransmission in cholinoceptive target regions of transgenic Tg2576 mice 39 3.2.1 Visualisation of cholinergic nerve terminals in mouse brain 39 3.2.2 VAChT-Expression in wild type and transgenic Tg2576 mice 40 3.3 Role of cholinergic system in β-amyloid-related changes in the cerebrovascular system of transgenic Tg2576 mice 46 3.3.1 Solanum tuberosum lectin (STL) histochemistry in visualisation of brain vessels, β-amyloid, and microglia 46 3.3.1.1 Solanum tuberosum lectin and brain vessels 46 3.3.1.2 Solanum tuberosum lectin and β-amyloid plaques 47 3.3.1.3 Solanum tuberosum lectin staining to visualize glial cells 48 3.3.2 Cholinergic perivascular innervation of cerebral cortical microvessels in transgenic Tg2576 and wild type mice 50 CHAPTER 4: DISCUSSION 4.1 β-Amyloid and brain vascular system: the vascular hypothesis of Alzheimer’s disease 55 4.1.1 Evidences of a role of vascular mechanisms in Alzheimer’s disease 55 4.1.2 Effect of β-amyloid on brain vascular system 57 4.1.3 Effect of ischemia and hypoperfusion on APP processing 59 4.1.4 Effect of β-amyloid on cholinergic function in brain vascular system 59 4.2 Aim of study and main results obtained 61 4.3 Age-related changes in cerebral cortical microvessels in the presence and absence of β-amyloid plaque load 62 4.4 Age-related changes of cholinergic terminals in cholinoceptive target regions in the presence and absence of β-amyloid plaque load 64 4.4.1 VAChT – a reliable marker for detection of cholinergic terminals in cerebral cortex 64 4.4.2 The barrel field of the somatosensory cortex 1 (S1BF) as a model region to reveal age-related changes in cholinergic innervation 65 4.4.3 VAChT expression: morphological and morphometric studies 66 4.5 Age-related changes in cholinergic innervation of cerebral cortical microvessels in the presence and absence of β-amyloid plaque load 69 4.5.1 STL – a mono-marker for detection of cortical vessels, senile amyloid plaques and activated microglia in cerebral cortex 69 4.5.2 Cholinergic perivascular innervation of cerebral cortical microvessels in transgenic Tg2576 mice 70 4.5.3 Quantitation of cholinergic input on cerebral microvessels of mouse brain 71 4.6 Summary and conclusions 75 REFERENCES 77

<p>The duodenal epithelium secretes bicarbonate ions and this is regarded as the primary defence mechanism against the acid discharged from the stomach. For an efficient protection, the duodenum must also function as a sensory organ identifying luminal factors. Enteroendocrine cells are well-established intestinal “taste” cells that express signaling peptides such as orexins and guanylins. Luminal factors affect the release of these peptides, which may modulate the activity of nearby epithelial and neural cells.</p><p>The present thesis considers the effects of orexins and guanylins on duodenal bicarbonate secretion. The duodenal secretory response to the peptides was examined in anaesthetised rats <i>in situ</i> and the effects of orexin-A on intracellular calcium signaling by human as well as rat duodenal enterocytes were studied <i>in vitro</i>.</p><p>Orexin-A, guanylin and uroguanylin were all stimulants of bicarbonate secretion. The stimulatory effect of orexin-A was inhibited by the OX₁-receptor selective antagonist SB-334867. The muscarinic antagonist atropine on the other hand, did not affect the orexin-A-induced secretion, excluding involvement of muscarinic receptors. Orexin-A induced calcium signaling in isolated duodenocytes suggesting a direct effect at these cells. Interestingly, orexin-induced secretion and calcium signaling as well as mucosal orexin-receptor mRNA and OX₁-receptor protein levels were all substantially downregulated in overnight fasted rats compared with animals with continuous access to food. Further, secretion induced by Orexin-A was shown to be dependent on an extended period of glucose priming.</p><p>The uroguanylin-induced bicarbonate secretion was reduced by atropine suggesting involvement of muscarinic receptors. The melatonin receptor antagonist luzindole attenuated the secretory response to intra-arterially administered guanylins but had no effect on secretion when the guanylins were given luminally. </p><p>In conclusion, the results suggest that orexin-A as well as guanylins may participate in the regulation of duodenal bicarbonate secretion. Further, the duodenal orexin system is dependent on the feeding status of the animals.</p>

Les cortices sensoriels sont des régions cérébrales essentielles pour la perception. En particulier, le cortex visuel traite l’information visuelle en provenance de la rétine qui transite par le thalamus. Les neurones sont les unités fonctionnelles qui transforment l'information sensorielle en signaux électriques, la transfèrent vers le cortex et l'intègrent. Les neurones du cortex visuel sont spécialisés et analysent différents aspects des stimuli visuels. La force des connections entre les neurones peut être modulée par la persistance de l'activité pré-synaptique et induit une augmentation ou une diminution du signal post-synaptique à long terme. Ces modifications de la connectivité synaptique peuvent induire la réorganisation de la carte corticale, c’est à dire la représentation de ce stimulus et la puissance de son traitement cortical. Cette réorganisation est connue sous le nom de plasticité corticale. Elle est particulièrement active durant la période de développement, mais elle s’observe aussi chez l’adulte, par exemple durant l’apprentissage. Le neurotransmetteur acétylcholine (ACh) est impliqué dans de nombreuses fonctions cognitives telles que l’apprentissage ou l’attention et il est important pour la plasticité corticale. En particulier, les récepteurs nicotiniques et muscariniques du sous-type M1 et M2 sont les récepteurs cholinergiques impliqués dans l’induction de la plasticité corticale. L’objectif principal de la présente thèse est de déterminer les mécanismes de plasticité corticale induits par la stimulation du système cholinergique au niveau du télencéphale basal et de définir les effets sur l’amélioration de la perception sensorielle. Afin d’induire la plasticité corticale, j’ai jumelé des stimulations visuelles à des injections intracorticales d’agoniste cholinergique (carbachol) ou à une stimulation du télencéphale basal (neurones cholinergiques qui innervent le cortex visuel primaire). J'ai analysé les potentiels évoqués visuels (PEVs) dans le cortex visuel primaire des rats pendant 4 à 8 heures après le couplage. Afin de préciser l’action de l’ACh sur l’activité des PEVs dans V1, j’ai injecté individuellement l’antagoniste des récepteurs muscariniques, nicotiniques, α7 ou NMDA avant l’infusion de carbachol. La stimulation du système cholinergique jumelée avec une stimulation visuelle augmente l’amplitude des PEVs durant plus de 8h. Le blocage des récepteurs muscarinique, nicotinique et NMDA abolit complètement cette amélioration, tandis que l’inhibition des récepteurs α7 a induit une augmentation instantanée des PEVs. Ces résultats suggèrent que l'ACh facilite à long terme la réponse aux stimuli visuels et que cette facilitation implique les récepteurs nicotiniques, muscariniques et une interaction avec les récepteur NMDA dans le cortex visuel. Ces mécanismes sont semblables à la potentiation à long-terme, évènement physiologique lié à l’apprentissage. L’étape suivante était d’évaluer si l’effet de l’amplification cholinergique de l’entrée de l’information visuelle résultait non seulement en une modification de l’activité corticale mais aussi de la perception visuelle. J’ai donc mesuré l’amélioration de l’acuité visuelle de rats adultes éveillés exposés durant 10 minutes par jour pendant deux semaines à un stimulus visuel de type «réseau sinusoïdal» couplé à une stimulation électrique du télencéphale basal. L’acuité visuelle a été mesurée avant et après le couplage des stimulations visuelle et cholinergique à l’aide d’une tâche de discrimination visuelle. L’acuité visuelle du rat pour le stimulus d’entrainement a été augmentée après la période d’entrainement. L’augmentation de l’acuité visuelle n’a pas été observée lorsque la stimulation visuelle seule ou celle du télencéphale basal seul, ni lorsque les fibres cholinergiques ont été lésées avant la stimulation visuelle. Une augmentation à long terme de la réactivité corticale du cortex visuel primaire des neurones pyramidaux et des interneurones GABAergiques a été montrée par l’immunoréactivité au c-Fos. Ainsi, lorsque couplé à un entrainement visuel, le système cholinergique améliore les performances visuelles pour l’orientation et ce probablement par l’optimisation du processus d’attention et de plasticité corticale dans l’aire V1. Afin d’étudier les mécanismes pharmacologiques impliqués dans l’amélioration de la perception visuelle, j’ai comparé les PEVs avant et après le couplage de la stimulation visuelle/cholinergique en présence d’agonistes/antagonistes sélectifs. Les injections intracorticales des différents agents pharmacologiques pendant le couplage ont montré que les récepteurs nicotiniques et M1 muscariniques amplifient la réponse corticale tandis que les récepteurs M2 muscariniques inhibent les neurones GABAergiques induisant un effet excitateur. L’infusion d’antagoniste du GABA corrobore l’hypothèse que le système inhibiteur est essentiel pour induire la plasticité corticale. Ces résultats démontrent que l’entrainement visuel jumelé avec la stimulation cholinergique améliore la plasticité corticale et qu’elle est contrôlée par les récepteurs nicotinique et muscariniques M1 et M2. Mes résultats suggèrent que le système cholinergique est un système neuromodulateur qui peut améliorer la perception sensorielle lors d’un apprentissage perceptuel. Les mécanismes d’amélioration perceptuelle induits par l’acétylcholine sont liés aux processus d’attention, de potentialisation à long-terme et de modulation de la balance d’influx excitateur/inhibiteur. En particulier, le couplage de l’activité cholinergique avec une stimulation visuelle augmente le ratio de signal / bruit et ainsi la détection de cibles. L’augmentation de la concentration cholinergique corticale potentialise l’afférence thalamocorticale, ce qui facilite le traitement d’un nouveau stimulus et diminue la signalisation cortico-corticale minimisant ainsi la modulation latérale. Ceci est contrôlé par différents sous-types de récepteurs cholinergiques situés sur les neurones GABAergiques ou glutamatergiques des différentes couches corticales. La présente thèse montre qu’une stimulation électrique dans le télencéphale basal a un effet similaire à l’infusion d’agoniste cholinergique et qu’un couplage de stimulations visuelle et cholinergique induit la plasticité corticale. Ce jumelage répété de stimulations visuelle/cholinergique augmente la capacité de discrimination visuelle et améliore la perception. Cette amélioration est corrélée à une amplification de l’activité neuronale démontrée par immunocytochimie du c-Fos. L’immunocytochimie montre aussi une différence entre l’activité des neurones glutamatergiques et GABAergiques dans les différentes couches corticales. L’injection pharmacologique pendant la stimulation visuelle/cholinergique suggère que les récepteurs nicotiniques, muscariniques M1 peuvent amplifier la réponse excitatrice tandis que les récepteurs M2 contrôlent l’activation GABAergique. Ainsi, le système cholinergique activé au cours du processus visuel induit des mécanismes de plasticité corticale et peut ainsi améliorer la capacité perceptive. De meilleures connaissances sur ces actions ouvrent la possibilité d’accélérer la restauration des fonctions visuelles lors d’un déficit ou d’amplifier la fonction cognitive. / Sensory cortex is an essential area where sensory perception occurs. Especially visual cortex processes visual information transmitted from the retina through the thalamus. By different neuronal activation the information is segregated and sent to diverse visual area for interpretation. Neurons are the basic unit that transform sensory information into electrophysiological signal, transfer to the cortex and integrate it. Connection between neurons can be modulated depending on the persistent presynaptic activity inducing either a long-term increase or decrease of the post-synaptic activity. Modification in synaptic strength can affect large area and induce reorganization of cortical map (i.e. cortical plasticity) which changes the representation of the visual stimulus and its weight in visual processing. Cortical plasticity can occur during juvenile while forming developmental connection or in adult while acquiring novel information (i.e. learning). The neurotransmitter ACh is involved in many cognitive functions, such as learning or attention and it was demonstrated that lesioning or blocking cholinergic system diminishes cortical plasticity. It was shown that nicotinic, M1 subtype and M2 subtype muscarinic receptors are the major cholinergic receptors abundant in the cortex and implicated during cortical plasticity induction. In a first part, I analyzed visual evoked potentials (VEPs) in V1 of rats during a 4-8h period after coupling visual stimulation to an intracortical injection of ACh agonist carbachol or stimulation of basal forebrain. To clarify the action of ACh on VEP activity in V1, we individually injected muscarinic, nicotinic, α7, and NMDA receptor antagonists just before carbachol infusion. Stimulation of the cholinergic system paired with visual stimulation significantly increased VEP amplitude for long-term. Pre-inhibition of muscarinic, nicotinic and NMDA receptor completely abolished this long-term enhancement, while α7 inhibition induced an instant increase of VEP amplitude. This suggests a role of ACh in facilitating visual stimuli responsiveness which involves nicotinic and muscarinic receptors with an interaction of NMDA transmission in the visual cortex. These mechanisms were similar to long-term potentiation, a neurobiological mechanism of learning. In a second step, I evaluate whether cholinergic modulation of visual neurons results in cortical activity and visual perception changes. Awake adult rats were exposed repetitively for two weeks to an orientation-specific grating with coupling visual stimulation to an electrical stimulation of the basal forebrain. The visual acuity, as measured using a visual water maze before and after coupling visual/cholinergic stimulation was increased. The increase in visual acuity was not observed when visual or basal forebrain stimulation was performed separately nor when cholinergic fibers were selectively lesioned prior to the visual stimulation. There was a long-lasting increase in cortical reactivity of the primary visual cortex shown by c-Fos immunoreactivity of both pyramidal and GABAergic interneuron. These findings demonstrate that when coupled with visual training, the cholinergic system improves visual performance for the trained orientation probably through enhancement of attentional processes and cortical plasticity in V1 related to the ratio of excitatory/inhibitory inputs. Finally, I also investigated the different pharmacological mechanisms involved in the visual enhancement. Pre- and post-pairing visual/cholinergic stimulation VEP were compared with selective administered agonist/antagonist during the pairing. Awaken adult rats were exposed during 10 minutes per day for 1 week to an orientation specific grating with an electrical stimulation of the basal forebrain. Intracortical injection of different pharmacological agents during pairing demonstrated that nicotinic and M1 muscarinic receptors are used to amplify cortical response while M2 muscarinic receptor suppresses GABAergic neurons to disinhibit excitatory neurons. Infusion of GABAergic antagonist supported that inhibitory system is crucial to induce cortical plasticity. These findings demonstrate that visual training coupled with the cholinergic stimulation enhances the cortical plasticity mediated by nicotinic, M1 and M2 muscarinic receptors, which the latter induces a disinhibition by suppressing GABAergic neuron. The cholinergic system is a potent neuromodulatory system. Boosting this system during perceptual learning robustly enhances the sensory perception. Especially, pairing a cholinergic activation with a visual stimulation increases the signal-to-noise ratio, cue detection ability in the primary visual cortex. This cholinergic enhancement increases the strength of thalamocortical afferent to facilitate the treatment of a novel stimulus while decreasing the cortico-cortical signaling to minimize recurrent or top-down modulation. This is mediated by different cholinergic receptor subtypes located in both glutamatergic and GABAergic neurons of the different cortical layers. The mechanisms of cholinergic enhancement are closely linked to attentional processes, long-term potentiation and modulation of the excitatory/inhibitory balance. The present thesis shows that electrical stimulation of the basal forebrain has similar effect with cholinergic agonist release and pairing visual/cholinergic stimulation induces cortical plasticity. Repetitive pairing of visual/cholinergic increases visual discrimination capacity and enhances perceptual ability. This enhancement is followed by an augmentation of neuronal activity demonstrated by c-Fos immunohistochemistry. Immunoreactivity also shows difference in glutamatergic and GABAergic neurons activities between layers. Pharmacological injection during visual/cholinergic pairing suggests that nicotinic and M1 muscarinic receptor can amplify excitatory response while M2 receptor controls GABAergic activation. Altogether cholinergic system activated during visual process induces cortical plasticity and can enhance perceptual ability. Further understanding of this training has the potential to accelerate visual recovery or boost cognitive function.

Mémoire numérisé par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal.

INTRODUÇÃO: A atuação do sistema nervoso parassimpático em células imunes é conhecida como \"Via Anti-inflamatória Colinérgica\". Trabalhos prévios demonstraram que a estimulação vagal reduz a inflamação e melhora a sobrevida em modelos experimentais com sepse. Neste estudo avaliamos se o uso do anticolinesterásico piridostigmina: altera o número de linfócitos T (CD4+ e CD8+) convencionais (CD25+Foxp3-) e reguladores (CD25+Foxp3+) no sangue periférico, no baço e no miocárdio; modifica a concentração de citocinas (interleucina 1, interleucina 6, TNFalfa) no miocárdio; e influencia a função ventricular após infarto agudo do miocárdio experimental (IAM) em ratos. MÉTODOS: Utilizamos ratos machos adultos da linhagem Wistar, com peso variando entre 200 e 250 g, divididos em 3 grupos de 20 animais cada: grupo controle (GC), grupo infartado sem tratamento (IC) e grupo infartado tratado com piridostigmina (IP). O infarto agudo do miocárdio (IAM) foi obtido com a técnica da ligadura da artéria coronária esquerda, e o grupo IP recebeu piridostigmina na dose de 40mg/kg/dia na água de beber, iniciada 4 dias antes do IAM. Todos os animais foram submetidos à canulação da artéria femoral no dia seguinte ao IAM para registro das curvas de pressão arterial, e posterior análise dos componentes da variabilidade da freqüência cardíaca (VFC), domínio do tempo (SDNN e RMSSD) e da freqüência (componentes LF e HF); o estudo ecocardiográfico foi realizado no segundo dia pós IAM. No terceiro dia pós IAM, os ratos foram divididos em subgrupos de 10 animais, e sacrificados de forma específica para coleta de materiais: 500 ul de sangue periférico e baço fresco para realização da técnica de citometria de fluxo; ventrículo esquerdo para dosagem de citocinas pela técnica de ELISA; e ventrículo esquerdo para realização de imunohistoquímica. Foram usadas as técnicas padronizadas e de uso corrente nos laboratórios. Os resultados foram avaliados por análise de variância (ANOVA) multifatorial, usando o programa GraphPad Prism com teste post hoc de Tukey. RESULTADOS: O grupo IC comparado ao grupo controle apresentou queda significativa da pressão arterial e aumento da freqüência cardíaca. O grupo IP, comparado ao grupo IC, apresentou maior atividade vagal, caracterizada pela significante redução da FC e aumento da VFC (SDNN, 9,2±1,5 vs 5,2±0,5 p < 0,05). Os parâmetros ecocardiográficos avaliados evidenciaram presença de área hipo/acinética e redução da fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo nos grupos infartados, de igual magnitude. Com relação ao número de linfócitos T, verificamos que o grupo IC, comparado ao grupo controle, apresentou número significativamente menor de linfócitos reguladores (CD25+Foxp3+) no sangue periférico (CD4+: 63,5 ±1,4 vs 70,6 ±3,2%, e CD8+: 68,3 ±1,9 vs 76,1 ± 2,8%). O grupo IP, comparado ao grupo IC, apresentou significativa redução do número de linfócitos T convencionais no sangue periférico (respectivamente, CD4+: 1,5 ±0,2 vs 2,2 ± 0,2 %; CD8+: 1,1 ± 0,1 vs 1,8 ± 0,9%), e no baço houve redução somente do tipo CD4+ (respectivamente, 1,4 ± 0,2 vs 2,2 ± 0,2%), com aumento do tipo CD8+ (respectivamente, 1,2 ± 0,1 vs 0,7 ± 0,1 %). O grupo IP também apresentou significativo aumento de linfócitos reguladores (CD25+Foxp3+) no sangue periférico (respectivamente, CD4+: 76,5 ± 2,9 vs 63,5 ± 1,4 %; CD8+: 75,1 ± 1,0 vs 68,3 ± 1,9 %), e não apresentou diferenças significativas no número dessas células no baço. O grupo IC comparado ao grupo controle apresentou significativa marcação de anticorpos para CD4 e CD8 nas áreas infartada e peri-infarto por meio da análise de imunohistoquímica. O grupo IP comparado ao grupo IC, apresentou significativo aumento de CD4+ (respectivamente, 20,9 ± 6,5 vs 12,2 ± 2,5, p < 0,05) e de CD8+ (respectivamente, 17,9 ± 2,8 vs 5,8 ± 1,1%, p < 0,05) na área infartada; observamos redução significativa na marcação de CD4+ (respectivamente, 6,0 ±1,2 vs 12,5 ±4,8) na área peri-infarto, sem alterações significativas na marcação de CD8+. CONCLUSÃO: O tratamento com piridostigmina em ratos com IAM está associado a aumento da atividade vagal, aumento do número de linfócitos reguladores (CD25+Foxp3+) no sangue periférico e maior mobilização de células inflamatórias (CD4+ e CD8+) para a área infartada no miocárdio, com redução de CD4+ na área peri-infarto, no entanto sem mudança de CD8+ nesta região. A mudança do perfil inflamatório decorrente do aumento da atividade vagal na fase aguda do IAM, pode ser um possível mecanismo para explicar os benefícios detectados no remodelamento cardíaco após o IAM, em especial, na redução da área de lesão e na melhora da função ventricular, com uso de anticolinesterásicos / INTRODUTION: The role of the parasympathetic nervous system in immune cells is known as \"Cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway\". In previous work has demonstrated that vagal stimulation reduces inflammation and improves survival in experimental sepsis models. The aim of the present study evalued the use of anticholinesterase pyridostigmine: change the number of T lymphocytes (CD4+ and CD8+) conventional (CD25+Foxp3-) and regulatory (CD25+Foxp3+) in peripheral blood, spleen, and myocardium: modifies the concentration of cytokines (interleukin-1, interleukin-6, TNFalfa) in the myocardium, and influences ventricular function after experimental myocardial infarction (MI) in rats. METHODS: Adult male rats of Wistar strain, weighing between 200 and 250 g were divided into 3 groups of 20 animals each: control group (GC); untreated group without treatment (IC) and infarcted group treated with pyridostigmine (IP). Acute myocardial infarction (AMI) was obtained with the technique of ligation of the left coronary artery, and the IP group received pyridostigmine dose of 40 mg/Kg/day in drinking water starting 4 days before the AMI. All animals underwent cannulation of the femoral artery on the day following AMI to record the blood pressure curves, and subsequent analysis of the components of heart rate variability (HRV), the time domain (SDNN and RMSSD) and frequency (components LF and HF), the echocardiografic study was performed on the second day after AMI. On the third day post-MI, mice were divided into subgroups of 10 animals, and were sacrificed in order to collet specific materials: 500 ul of fresh peripheral blood and spleen technique for performing flow cytometry left ventricle for measurement of cytokine ELISA, and the left ventricle to perform immunohistochemistry. Techniques used were standardized and commonly used in laboraties. The results were evaluated by analysis of variance (ANOVA) multifactorial, using the GraphPad Prism with Tukey post hoc test RESULTS: The HF group compared to the control group showed a significant drop in blood pressure and increased heart rate. The IP group compared to the IC group showed higher vagal activity, characterized by a significant reduction in HR and increase HVR (SDNN, 9.2 ± 1.5 vs 5.2 ± 0.5, p < 0.05). The echocardiography parameters evaluated showed presence of area hypo/acinetic and reduced ejection fraction of the left ventricle in infracted groups of equal magnitude. Regarding the number of T lymphocytes, we found that the IC group compared with the control group showed significantly fewer lymphocytes regulators (CD25+Foxp3+) in peripheral blood (CD4+:63.5 ± 1.4 vs 70.6 ± 3.2% and CD8+ cells: 68.3 ± 1.9 vs 76.1 ± 2.8%). The IP group compared to the IC group showed a significant reduction in the number of conventional T lymphocytes in peripheral blood (CD4+:1.5 ± 0.2 vs 2.2 ± 0.2%; CD8+: 1.1 ± 0.1 vs 1.8 ± 0.9%) and was reduced only in the spleen of the type CD4+(1.4 ± 0.2 vs 2.2 ± 0,2%) with increased CD8+(1.2 ± 0.1 vs 0.7 ± 0.1%). The IP group also showed a significant increase of lymphocytes regulators (CD25+Foxp3+) in peripheral blood (CD4+: 76.5 ± 2.9 vs 63.5 ± 1.4%; CD8+:75.1 ± 1.0 vs 68.3 ± 1.9%), and no significant differences in the number of these cells in the spleen. The IC group compared to the control group showed significant labeling antibodies to CD4 and CD8 areas infarcted and peri-infarction by immunohistochemical analysis. The IP group compared to the IC group showed a significant increase in CD4 (20.9 ± 6.5 vs 12.2 ± 2.5, p < 0.05) and CD8 (17.9 ± 2.8 vs 5.8 ± 1.1%, p < 0.05) in the infarcted area, and we observed a significant reduction in the labeling of CD4 (6.0 ± 1.2 vs 12.5± 4.8) in the peri-infraction without significant changes in the marking of CD8. CONCLUSION: The treatment with pyridostigmine in rats with acute myocardial infarction is associated with increased vagal activity, increased number of regulatory lymphocytes (CD25+Foxp3+) in peripheral blood and increased mobilization of inflammatory cells (CD4 and CD8) to the infarcted myocardium, with reduction of these cells in the peri-infarction. The change of the inflammatory profile due to increased vagal activity may be a possible mechanism to explain the benefits in the evolution of myocardial infarction, especially in the improvement of cardiac remodeling and maintenance of ventricular function with anticholinesterase drugs

Der Morbus Parkinson ist die häufigste Erkrankung der Basalganglien und wird durch einen Abbau der dopaminergen Neurone in der Substantia nigra des Mittelhirns verursacht. Um Wege zu finden, die Nebenwirkungen bisheriger Therapien dieser Erkrankung zu vermeiden, sollten neue Angriffspunkte für pharmakologische Interventionen gesucht werden. Prinzipiell ist dabei jeder Schritt einer Signaltransduktions-Kaskade zu prüfen. Dazu gehören präsynaptische Transmitterfreisetzung, G-Protein-gesteuerte Effektormechanismen oder Veränderungen prä- und postsynaptischer Potentiale, wie sie durch ein bestimmtes lokales Ionenkanalmuster festgelegt werden. Aufgrund ihrer enormen molekularen Vielfalt bei gleichzeitig weiter, aber spezifischer Verbreitung, stellen Kaliumkanäle interessante Angriffspunkte für neue therapeutische Strategien dar. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht die zelluläre und subzelluläre Verteilung aller Mitglieder der Kir2-Familie, einer Gruppe von Proteinen, die einwärts-gleichrichtende Kaliumkanäle bildet. Zu diesem Zweck wurden polyklonale, monospezifische, affinitätsgereinigte Antikörper gegen den wenig konservierten carboxyterminalen Anteil der Kir2.1-, Kir2.2-, Kir2.3- und Kir2.4-Proteine hergestellt. Alle Untereinheiten der Kir2-Familie wurden an den Somata und Dendriten der meisten striatalen Neurone nachgewiesen. Zwei dieser Kanäle zeigten jedoch ein inhomogenes Verteilungsmuster: Das "patch"-Kompartiment des Striatums wurde von der Expression des Kir2.3-Kanals ausgespart, und das Kir2.4-Protein wurde am stärksten auf den tonisch aktiven, cholinergen striatalen Interneuronen exprimiert. Diese beiden Strukturen stellen die Schlüsselstellen für die Kontrolle und Regulation der dopaminergen und cholinergen Transmission im Striatum dar, weswegen ihnen eine zentrale Rolle für die efferenten Projektionen der Basalganglien zukommt. Die nachgewiesene heterogene Lokalisation der Kir2.3- und Kir2.4-Untereinheit an diesen strategisch relevanten Strukturen macht diese Kanäle zu viel versprechenden Angriffspunkten für zukünftige Pharmakotherapien. / Parkinson’s disease is the most frequent movement disorder caused by loss of dopaminergic neurons in the midbrain. Intentions to avoid side effects of conventional therapy should aim to identify additional targets for potential pharmacological intervention. In principle, every step of a signal transduction cascade, such as presynaptic transmitter release, type and occupation of postsynaptic receptors, G protein-mediated effector mechanisms, and the alterations of pre- or postsynaptic potentials as determined by the local ion channel composition, have to be considered. Due to their diversity and their widespread but distinct localizations, potassium channels represent interesting candidates for new therapeutic strategies. As a first step, the present report aimed to study the cellular and subcellular distribution of the individual members of the Kir2 family in the striatum, a group of proteins forming inwardly rectifying potassium channels. For this purpose polyclonal, monospecific, affinity purified antibodies against the less conserved carboxyterminal sequences from the Kir2.1, Kir2.2, Kir2.3, and Kir2.4 proteins were prepared. All subunits of the Kir2 family were detected on somata and dendrites of most striatal neurons. However, the distribution of two of them was not homogeneous. Striatal patch areas were largely devoid of the Kir2.3 protein, and the Kir2.4 subunit was most prominently expressed on the tonically active, giant cholinergic interneurons of the striatum. These two structures are among the key players in regulating dopaminergic and cholinergic neurotransmission within the striatum, and therefore are of major importance for the output of the basal ganglia. The heterogeneous localization of the Kir2.3 and the Kir2.4 subunits with respect to these strategic structures pinpoints these channel proteins as promising targets for future pharmacological efforts.

Chlamydia trachomatis is the most prevalent agent of bacterial sexually transmitted infections in the world. However, a profuse number of cases are unreported, as the infection is often asymptomatic. Sequelae such as pelvic inflammatory disease, an increased risk of cervical cancer, premature birth, and perinatal infections in pregnant women can occur. Inflammation occurs in the body in response to infection or injury. Although inflammation can lead to some unwanted secondary effects, such as pain, it serves to return the body to homeostasis by restoring injured tissues and eliminating pathogens. One recently identified connection between the central nervous system and the immune system that regulates inflammation is the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway (CAP). In the CAP, pathogen-associated molecular patterns stimulate the vagus nerve to activate the pathway, which ultimately results in acetylcholine (ACh) release, which down regulates inflammation. We hypothesized that genital chlamydial infection would increase the expression of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), the enzyme that synthesizes ACh, in the female murine genital tract, therefore down regulating inflammation and promoting chlamydial infection. Transgenic female mice carrying a ChAT-promoter driven GFP reporter gene were vaginally infected with C. muridarum. Mice were sacrificed on days 3, 9, 15, and 21 post infection; cervical, uterine horn, and ovarian tissues were removed and embedded in paraffin. Small sections of each tissue were cut and mounted onto slides. The tissue sections were then stained for the expression of ChAT using immunohistochemical techniques. Finally, tissue sections were viewed under a microscope for positive staining and the data was analyzed. The results indicated that there is a significant increase in the number of cells that express ChAT in genital tract of chlamydia-infected mice versus non-infected mice.