Subject of the dissertation research – analysis of the body of murder without circumstances aggravating and mitigating its gravity provided for in Part 1 Art. 129 of the Criminal Code of the Republic of Lithuania as well as analysis of theoretical and practical problems that arise upon qualifying these criminal acts. The goal of this research is to reveal a concept of murder without circumstances aggravating and mitigating its gravity where punishment is imposed in accordance with Part 1 Art. 129 of the CC of the Republic of Lithuania, to analyse attributes of this criminal act, to raise theoretical and practical problems of qualification of the analysed criminal act and to make proposals for solution of these problems. / Disertacijos tyrimo dalykas – nužudymo be jo pavojingumą didinančių ir mažinančių aplinkybių, numatyto Lietuvos Respublikos baudžiamojo kodekso (toliau tekste – LR BK) 129 str. 1 d., sudėties analizė bei teorinių ir praktinių problemų, kylančių kvalifikuojant šias nusikalstamas veikas, tyrimas. Disertacijos tyrimo tikslas – atskleisti nužudymo be jo pavojingumą didinančių ar mažinančių aplinkybių, už kurį kyla baudžiamoji atsakomybė pagal LR BK 129 straipsnio 1 dalį, sampratą, išanalizuoti šios nusikalstamos veikos požymius, iškelti nagrinėjamos nusikalstamos veikos teorines ir praktines kvalifikavimo problemas bei pateikti pasiūlymus šių problemų sprendimui.

Vadovaujantis pacta sunt servanta principu, iš esmės kiekvienas sutarties neįvykdymas, lygiai kaip ir netinkamas vykdymas reiškia sutarties pažeidimą, už kurį atsakingas skolininkas. Tačiau ši taisyklė turi išimtį – ji netaikoma tuomet, kai sutarties vykdymui trukdo po sutarties sudarymo atsiradusios tam tikros teisiškai reikšmingos aplinkybės, nepapuolančios į nė vienos iš šalių rizikos sritį. Tokioms situacijoms spręsti užsienio, tarptautinėje ir nacionalinėje praktikoje įtvirtinami ir taikomi sutarties vykdymo neįmanomumo dėl iš esmės pasikeitusių aplinkybių ir sutarties vykdymo apsunkinimo dėl iš esmės pasikeitusių aplinkybių teisiniai institutai, įvairiais aspektais tiriami šiame magistriniame darbe. Pirmoje darbo dalyje nagrinėjamos sutarčių vykdymo pasikeitus aplinkybėms problemai spręsti skirtų teisinių institutų ištakos, samprata, pagrindiniai požymiai ir tarpusavio santykis. Nustatyta, kad institutai yra savarankiški, todėl negali būti taikomi paraleliai ar subsidiariai. Antroje dalyje istoriniu – lyginamuoju aspektu tiriami Vokietijos, Prancūzijos ir Anglijos pasirinkti sutarčių vykdymo pasikeitus aplinkybėms problemos sprendimo būdai. Analizė parodė, kad šiose valstybėse sutarčių vykdymo neįmanomumo dėl iš esmės pasikeitusių aplinkybių situacijos sprendžiamos labai panašiai. Tačiau valstybių požiūris į sutarties vykdymo apsunkinimo dėl iš esmės pasikeitusių aplinkybių teisinį institutą yra ganėtinai skirtingas. Trečioji darbo dalis skirta Lietuvai reikšminguose... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / According to principle pacta sunt servanta, commonly each non-fulfilment of the contract as well as undue fulfilment is considered as an infringement, for which the promisor is liable. However, this rule has an exception – it is not applied, when performance of a contract is impeded by particular legally significant circumstances, which occurred after conclusion of a contract and the risk thereof was not assumed by either party. Such situations in foreign, international and national practice are dealt by applying legal institutes of impossibility of performance due to change of circumstances and hardship of performance due to change of circumstances, the various aspects whereof are analysed in the master thesis. First part of the thesis analyses origins, concepts, main features and correlation between the legal institutes, developed to deal with the problem of performance of contracts under changed circumstances. It has been found out that they are independent and, thus could not be applied simultaneously or subsidiary. In second part the author historically-comparatively reviews, how the problem of performance of contract under changed circumstances is dealt in Germany, France and England. The study has shown that these countries solve problem of impossibility to perform the contract due to changed circumstances in a very similar way. However, they have quite a different approach towards the legal institute of hardship of performance due to change of circumstances. Third... [to full text]

Contentious issues of necessary defence in judicial practise The subject of this thesis is necessary defence in Czech criminal law. Necessary defence is defined as an action which is usually considered illegal but because it is made in defence against an imminent or persistent attack on values protected by criminal law, it is not considered a crime. The law also states that the intensity of this defence cannot be clearly and obviously disproportionate to the form of the attack. This thesis focuses primarily on contentious issues that courts often deal with when they interpret and apply necessary defence in real cases. Before focusing on contentious issues this thesis first describes the basics of necessary defence. Since necessary defence is one of the circumstances excluding liability in Czech criminal law, this thesis first briefly describes these circumstances. In the next section the thesis focuses on the conditions and limits of necessary defence as they are defined in criminal law. Necessary defence is comprised of an attack and a corresponding defensive action. This section first focuses on the obligatory attributes of the attack and then on the conditions of the defence. Next this section describes the consequences of violating the limits of necessary defence and then it focuses on putative...

The topic of this diploma thesis is allowable risk and its impact as a potential circumstance excluding liability. Czech law system takes into account tolerable risk as a circumstance excluding liability which this thesis is substantially focused on. At the beginning of the thesis circumstances excluding liability are defined in order to compare specifics of the tolerable risk institute. Briefly it analyzes some basic criminal law questions related to the thesis subject including concept of crime or errors in circumstances excluding liability. Next chapters deal with legal and general definition of tolerable risk and historical development of this issue in our law environment, including work of August Miřička, probably the first Czech lawyer addressing this issue. Further questions are suggested in these chapters. These questions are derived from legal status of tolerable risk and are thoroughly discussed in separate chapters for each sector. Legislator did not restrict sectors of usage explicitly. If conditions stated in the criminal code are fulfilled, tolerable risk can be always used. Although the thesis focuses on sectors in which risk has been proven usable, potential list of fields of application is not totally exhausting. I also evaluate suitability of the definition of tolerable risk in...

In South Africa, as in most jurisdictions which profess to be based on an open and democratic society based on human dignity, equality and freedom, the right against compelled self-incrimination is a guaranteed Constitutional right. This study is prompted by the realization that the right against self-incrimination is being undermined and eroded by an aspect of South Africa’s bail laws. The current study addresses the constitutional validity of section 60(11B)(c) of the Criminal Procedure Act 51 of 1977 in so far as it allows for the admission of incriminating evidence at trial, in contravention of the accused’s right against self-incrimination, which incriminatory evidence was tendered by the applicant during a bail application in circumstances where the applicant was compelled to prove that he would be acquitted at trial where reliance is placed on a weak State’s case in proving exceptional circumstances in compliance with section 60(11)(a) of the Criminal Procedure Act 51 of 1977. Whilst section 60(11B)(c) of the Criminal Procedure Act 51 of 1977 is undoubtedly aimed at combatting crime, the pre-occupation with crime control measures threatens to undermine individual liberty and poses a threat to our Constitutional project of building a human rights culture. I advance an argument which supports the view that section 60(11B)(c) of the Criminal Procedure Act 51 of 1977 is unconstitutional, in the above context, in that it infringes upon the accused’s right against compelled self-incrimination at trial and does not amount to a justifiable limitation on the rights of an accused in an open and democratic society based on human dignity, equality and freedom. I also advance an alternative legal remedy aimed at fulfilling the initial mischief which Section 60(11B)(c) of the Criminal Procedure Act 51 of 1977 was designed to prevent in order to bring the section in line with the Constitution and a rights-based society. / Mini Dissertation (LLM)--University of Pretoria, 2017. / Procedural Law / LLM / Unrestricted

School principals lead and manage schools to achieve success. However, some schools are located in multiple deprived contexts, which affect the school internally and externally. Little is known about how principals in well-performing schools manage teaching and learning despite the contextual challenges. This study explored the role of successful school principals managing teaching and learning in schools in multiple deprived contexts in Gauteng Province. A qualitative case study within a constructive / interpretivist paradigm was adopted for the research. The theoretical framework of this study is grounded in the Context-Responsive Leadership theory by Bredeson, Klar and Johansson. Eleven secondary schools performing well in the Senior Certificate Examination in Tshwane North District were purposefully selected for the study. The school principals were the participants in this study. The data was obtained from different sources which include semi-structured interviews, observations and documents review. The data was thematically analysed and the results were categorised according to themes and sub-themes. The findings of the study highlight the economic and social factors used by the principals to describe the context of their schools as well as other external and internal factors that affected teaching and learning. Collaborative leadership, as well as instructional leadership of the school principal, seem to be a common strategy used by the principals of successful schools to overcome the contextual challenges. The principals also applied other relevant context-responsive leadership practices in their multiple deprived schools. The study concluded that leadership practices of school principals seemed to be based on an understanding and interaction of self and the context in which the school operates. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2019. / Education Management and Policy Studies / PhD / Unrestricted

Circumstances excluding Criminal Liability with a focus on the Impunity of the Agent Abstract The Thesis adresses Circumstances excluding Criminal Liability with a focus on the Impunity of the Agent. The aim of the Thesis was to evaluate current Legislation and to define the limits of Circumstances excluding Criminal Liability Excesses. The next objective was to determine the appropriateness of the Impunity of the Agent and its legislation. The Thesis firstly analyzed the historical legal developments of Circumstances excluding Criminal Liability in Czech countries in order to attain the above mentioned objectives. The historical development is followed by the discussion of the Circumstances excluding Criminal Liability, their general legislation and theoretical foundations, the reasons for adopting their legislation, also the errors of law and of fact. Next chapters are devoted to specific Cirmustances of excluding Criminal Liability, starting from the Necessity, Self - Defence, Consent, Permissible Risk and Lawful use of Firearms. The Circumstances excluding Criminal Liability were analyzed in their statutory legislation by using Academic Literature and mainly the case - law, which clarified some vague rules and limits of the Circumstances excluding Criminal Liability. The third part of the Thesis...

La détermination de la peine par les juges est un processus complexe. Les circonstances aggravantes et atténuantes reliées à l’infraction et à l’accusé influencent la peine imposée. L’inclusion de certaines considérations légales est également nécessaire dans l’évaluation de la sentence. En effet, l’instauration de peines minimales obligatoires peut impacter la sévérité des peines imposées par les juges à travers le temps. Nous discuterons de la détermination de la peine d’une infraction particulière afin d’analyser et de comprendre plus en profondeur les facteurs qui la composent. Une infraction qui a largement pris de l’ampleur dans les deux dernières décennies est la pornographie juvénile (PJ). Cette infraction numérique a d’ailleurs subi des transformations au niveau légal, technologique et social. Cette étude vise à comprendre le processus décisionnel des juges lors de la détermination de la peine dans les cas de PJ au Canada. Il s’agit d’effectuer une analyse des circonstances légales et pénales sur lesquelles ils se basent. L’échantillon est formé de 168 jugements écrits et disponibles en accès libre faisant mention des sentences imposées par les juges pour des infractions de possession et/ou d’accès de PJ commises entre 1999 et 2019. Les différentes analyses effectuées permettent de constater une certaine variation de la sévérité des peines d’emprisonnement à travers les années. L’ajout des peines minimales obligatoires a fortement influencé cette variation. Mis à part cet ajustement, les résultats suggèrent que des circonstances mentionnées par les juges sont prises en compte lors de la détermination de la peine. Or, on remarque que la majorité des facteurs atténuants ne font pas varier la peine de prison imposée, à l’exception de la présence d’un support familial/amical chez le délinquant. Des facteurs aggravants sont considérés par les juges lors de la détermination de la peine, tel que le nombre de vidéos saisis, la présence d'antécédents judiciaires, l'investissement personnel du délinquant dans sa collection de PJ ainsi que l’absence de remords. Cette étude offre la première évaluation des facteurs déterminants de la peine des accusés de pornographie juvénile au Canada. / Sentencing is a complex process. Aggravating and mitigating circumstances related to the offence and the accused influence the sentence. The inclusion of certain legal considerations is also necessary in the assessment of the sentence. Indeed, the adoption of mandatory minimum sentences in Canada may impact the severity of sentences imposed by judges over time. We will discuss the sentencing of a particular offence to further analyze and understand the factors that compose it. One offence that has grown significantly in the last two decades is child pornography (CP). This digital offence has been subject to legal, technological, and social transformations. The purpose of this study is to understand the decision-making process of judges at sentencing in CP cases in Canada. The objective is to analyze the legal and penal circumstances on which they base their decisions. The sample is made up of 168 written judgments available in open access mentioning the sentences imposed by judges, for offences of possession and/or access of CP committed between 1999 and 2019. The various analyses conducted show a certain variation in the severity of prison sentences over the years. The addition of mandatory minimum sentences strongly influenced this variation. Apart from this adjustment, the results suggest that circumstances mentioned are considered during sentencing. However, we note that most mitigating factors do not vary the prison sentence imposed, except for the presence of a social support. Aggravating factors are considered by judges when determining the sentence, such as the number of videos seized, the presence of a criminal record, the offender's personal investment in his PJ collection and the absence of remorse. This study provides the first assessment of sentencing factors for child pornography accused in Canada.

The phenomenon of sustainability is one of the hottest topics in today's society because ofthe ongoing climate crisis that threatens the well-being of the planet. The fast fashionindustry is one of the world's most polluting industries that is continuously faced withchallenges when it comes to implementing sustainability in its operations. The main purposeof this industry is to produce large quantities of clothing at low prices with a short life cycleto be able to regularly launch new fashion campaigns, which triggers impulse buyingbehaviour among consumers. In order to protect the planet, it is important that there is achange in consumer attitudes, while demands must be placed on fast fashion companies thatcan make them integrate sustainability into their business models. According to previousresearch, there is a weak correlation between sustainable consumers' attitudes and theiractual purchasing behaviour regarding apparel consumption, which leads to the creation ofan attitude-behaviour gap. The fundamental purpose of this study is to find out how internal and external circumstancesinfluence sustainable consumers' buying behaviour and make them turn to fast fashioncompanies despite the positive attitude they initially had. This will contribute to increasedknowledge and understanding of the attitude-behaviour gap and the circumstances that leadto the emergence of this phenomenon. Thus, the study intends to answer the followingproblem formulation: What circumstances influence conscious consumers to purchase fast fashion? The literature review of in the study is based on previous research in the areas of attitude-behaviour gap, consumer decision making process, theory of planned behaviour, externaland internal circumstances. In order to be able to answer the research question, the thesisauthors have chosen to start from a qualitative research method. In the study, a total of 8female respondents between the ages of 24-28 participated and these respondents have beenselected using a so-called snowball sample, in order to be able to include individuals with asustainable mindset, which is relevant for this study. In order for the interview participantsto feel comfortable talking openly about the topic, thesis authors have therefore avoided toinclude family and friends in the interviews. The authors have instead used their contactnetworks to get in touch with relevant respondents to this study. The results of the study show that external and internal circumstances- compromisingproduct attributes, limiting conditions and perceived risk, collectively contribute to thecreation of an attitude-behaviour gap and cause sustainable consumers to choose to turn tofast fashion companies when buying clothes.

The additional tax ("penalties") imposable in terms of section 76(1) of the Income Tax Act (No 58 of 1962) when a taxpayer is in default, can be very harsh (up to 200% of the tax properly chargeable). The Commissioner may, in terms of section 76(2)(a), remit any penalty imposed, as he sees fit. However, when there was intent on the part of the taxpayer to evade the payment of tax, the Commissioner may not remit any portion of the 200% penalty imposable, unless he is of the opinion that "extenuating circumstances" exist. This dissertation examines the meaning of "extenuating circumstances", as interpreted by the judiciary, and lists the factors and defences that a taxpayer may plead to justify a remission of penalties, both in the case of an intention by the taxpayer to evade tax and in cases where the taxpayer is merely in default of section 76(1). / Accounting / MCOM (Accounting)