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Une réconciliation entre un arbre de gènes et un arbre d’espèces décrit une histoire d’évolution des gènes homologues en termes de duplications et pertes de gènes. Pour inférer une réconciliation pour un arbre de gènes et un arbre d’espèces, la parcimonie est généralement utilisée selon le nombre de duplications et/ou de pertes. Les modèles de réconciliation sont basés sur des critères probabilistes ou combinatoires. Le premier article définit un modèle combinatoire simple et général où les duplications et les pertes sont clairement identifiées et la réconciliation parcimonieuse n’est pas la seule considérée. Une architecture de toutes les réconciliations est définie et des algorithmes efficaces (soit de dénombrement, de génération aléatoire et d’exploration) sont développés pour étudier les propriétés combinatoires de l’espace de toutes les réconciliations ou seulement les plus parcimonieuses. Basée sur le processus classique nommé naissance-et-mort, un algorithme qui calcule la vraisemblance d’une réconciliation a récemment été proposé. Le deuxième article utilise cet algorithme avec les outils combinatoires décrits ci-haut pour calculer efficacement (soit approximativement ou exactement) les probabilités postérieures des réconciliations localisées dans le sous-espace considéré. Basé sur des taux réalistes (selon un modèle probabiliste) de duplication et de perte et sur des données réelles/simulées de familles de champignons, nos résultats suggèrent que la masse probabiliste de toute l’espace des réconciliations est principalement localisée autour des réconciliations parcimonieuses. Dans un contexte d’approximation de la probabilité d’une réconciliation, notre approche est une alternative intéressante face aux méthodes MCMC et peut être meilleure qu’une approche sophistiquée, efficace et exacte pour calculer la probabilité d’une réconciliation donnée. Le problème nommé Gene Tree Parsimony (GTP) est d’inférer un arbre d’espèces qui minimise le nombre de duplications et/ou de pertes pour un ensemble d’arbres de gènes. Basé sur une approche qui explore tout l’espace des arbres d’espèces pour les génomes considérés et un calcul efficace des coûts de réconciliation, le troisième article décrit un algorithme de Branch-and-Bound pour résoudre de façon exacte le problème GTP. Lorsque le nombre de taxa est trop grand, notre algorithme peut facilement considérer des relations prédéfinies entre ensembles de taxa. Nous avons testé notre algorithme sur des familles de gènes de 29 eucaryotes. / A reconciliation between a gene tree and a species tree depicts an evolutionary scenario of the homologous genes in terms of gene duplications and gene losses. To infer such a reconciliation given a gene tree and a species tree, parsimony is generally used according to the number of gene duplications and/or losses. The combinatorial models of reconciliation are based on probabilistic or combinatorial criteria. The first paper defines a simple and more general combinatorial model of reconciliation which clearly identifies duplication and loss events and does not only induce the most parsimonious reconciliation. An architecture of all possible reconciliations is developed together with efficient algorithms (that is counting, randomization, and exploration) to study combinatorial properties of the space of all reconciliations or only the most parsimonious ones. Based on the classical birth-death process, an algorithm that computes the likelihood of a reconciliation has recently been proposed. The second paper uses this algorithm together with the combinatorial tools described above to compute efficiently, either exactly or approximately, the posterior probability of the reconciliations located in the considered subspace. Based on realistic gene duplication and loss rates and on real/simulated datasets of fungal gene families, our results suggest that the probability mass of the whole space of reconciliations is mostly located around the most parsimonious ones. In the context of posterior probability approximation, our approach is a valuable alternative to a MCMC method and can competes against a sophisticated, efficient, and exact computation of the probability of a given reconciliation. The Gene Tree Parsimony (GTP) problem is to infer a species tree that minimizes the number of duplications and/or losses over a set of gene family trees. Based on a new approch that explores the whole species tree space for the considered taxa and an efficient computation of the reconciliation cost, the third paper describes a Branch-and- Bound algorithm that solves exactly the GTP problem. When the considered number of taxa is too large, our algorithm can naturally take into account predefined relationships between sets of taxa. We test our algorithm on a dataset of eukaryotic gene families spanning 29 taxa.

Acidophilic iron oxidizing bacteria of the betaproteobacterial genus “Ferrovum” are ubiquitously distributed in acid mine drainage (AMD) habitats worldwide. Since their isolation and maintenance in the laboratory has proved to be extremely difficult, members of this genus are not accessible to a “classical” microbiological characterization with exception of the designated type strain “Ferrovum myxofaciens” P3G. The present study reports the characterization of “Ferrovum” strains at genome and transcriptome level. “Ferrovum” sp. JA12, “Ferrovum” sp. PN-J185 and “F. myxofaciens” Z-31 represent the iron oxidizers of the mixed cultures JA12, PN-J185 and Z-31. The mixed cultures were derived from the mine water treatment plant Tzschelln close to the lignite mining site in Nochten (Lusatia, Germany). The mixed cultures also contain a heterotrophic strain of the genus Acidiphilium. The genome analysis of Acidiphilium sp. JA12-A1, the heterotrophic contamination of the mixed culture JA12, indicates an interspecies carbon and phosphate transfer between Acidiphilium and “Ferrovum” in the mixed culture, and possibly also in their natural habitat. The comparison of the inferred metabolic potentials of four “Ferrovum” strains and the analysis of their phylogenetic relationships suggest the existence of two subgroups within the genus “Ferrovum” (i.e. the operational taxonomic units OTU-1 and OUT-2) harboring characteristic metabolic profiles. OTU-1 includes the “F. myxofaciens” strains P3G and Z-31, which are predicted to be motile and diazotrophic, and to have a higher acid tolerance than OTU-2. The latter includes two closely related proposed species represented by the strains JA12 and PN-J185, which appear to lack the abilities of motility, chemotaxis and molecular nitrogen fixation. Instead, both OTU-2 strains harbor the potential to use urea as alternative nitrogen source to ammonium, and even nitrate in case of the JA12-like species. The analysis of the genome architectures of the four “Ferrovum” strains suggests that horizontal gene transfer and loss of metabolic genes, accompanied by genome reduction, have contributed to the evolution of the OTUs. A trial transcriptome study of “Ferrovum” sp. JA12 supports the ferrous iron oxidation model inferred from its genome sequence, and reveals the potential relevance of several hypothetical proteins in ferrous iron oxidation. Although the inferred models in “Ferrovum” spp. share common features with the acidophilic iron oxidizers of the Acidithiobacillia, it appears to be more similar to the neutrophilic iron oxidizers Mariprofundus ferrooxydans (“Zetaproteobacteria”) and Sideroxydans lithotrophicus (Betaproteobacteria). These findings suggest a common origin of ferrous iron oxidation in the Beta- and “Zetaproteobacteria”, while the acidophilic lifestyle of “Ferrovum” spp. may have been acquired later, allowing them to also colonize acid mine drainage habitats.

Les Wolbachia sont des alpha-proteobactéries présentes chez de nombreux arthropodes et nématodes filaires. Ces bactéries héritées maternellement induisent chez leurs hôtes des phénotypes allant du parasitisme au mutualisme, avec le long de ce continuum des phénotypes tels que la féminisation (F), l'incompatibilité cytoplasmique (IC) ou la mort des mâles. Wolbachia est ainsi un modèle particulièrement intéressant pour étudier les différents types de relations symbiotiques.Chez Brugia malayi, comme pour les autres nématodes filaires, Wolbachia vit en symbiose obligatoire avec son hôte. L'élimination de la bactérie par des traitements antibiotiques entraîne une perte de fertilité voire la mort du nématode. Chez l'isopode terrestre Armadillidium vulgare, Wolbachia induit la féminisation des mâles génétiques en femelles fonctionnelles entraînant des biais de sex-ratio vers les femelles dans la descendance.Pour comprendre les mécanismes impliqués dans ces deux symbioses, nous avons mis au point une nouvelle méthode de capture pour isoler l'ADN de Wolbachia et séquencer 8 souches de Wolbachia d'isopodes (F et IC). Une étude de génomique comparative a permis d'établir un premier pan-génome des bactéries du genre Wolbachia et d'identifier 2, 5 et 3 gènes présents seulement chez les souches mutualistes, féminisantes ou induisant la mort des mâles. L'expression des gènes potentiellement impliqués dans la féminisation ou le mutualisme a été étudiée au cours du développement de l'hôte. L'étude de l'interactome protéique bactérie-hôte a ensuite été initiée en utilisant comme appât des protéines bactériennes à domaines eucaryotes en vue d'identifier les cibles de Wolbachia chez l'hôte. / Bacteria of the genus Wolbachia are gram-negative alpha-proteobacteria present in many arthropods and filarial nematodes. These obligate intracellular bacteria are maternally inherited and induce a large number of phenotypes across the symbiosis continuum from mutualism to parasitism, including feminization (F), cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI) or male killing. Studying Wolbachia symbioses is therefore of particular interest in the investigation of symbiotic relationships.In Brugia malayi and other filarial nematodes, they are obligate leading to a loss of worm fertility, and eventual death upon their depletion with antibiotic. In arthropods, they rather are parasitic. In the isopod crustacean Armadillidium vulgare they cause feminization when present: genetic males develop as functional female leading to female biased sex-ratio progenies.In order to understand the molecular mechanisms of these two symbioses, we set up a new capture procedure to catch Wolbachia DNA and performed whole-genome sequencing on 8 Wolbachia strains, symbionts of isopods (F & CI). Comparative genomics led to the establishment of the Wolbachia pan-genome as well as the identification of phenotype related gene patterns. We identified 2, 5 and 3 genes that are only found in mutualist, feminizing and male killing strains, respectively. Expression of genes potentially involved in feminization and mutualism were also analyzed throughout host post-embryonic development. Host-symbiont interactome approach was then initiated by protein-protein interaction studies using bacterial proteins with eukaryote like motifs as bait in order to identify Wolbachia host targets involved in symbiosis.

La quantité croissante de données générées est à l’origine de nombreuses problématiques en bioinformatique telles que le développement de nouvelles méthodes de traitement et d’analyse efficaces de ces données. Plus particulièrement, les réseaux de régulation des fonctions cellulaires sont au coeur de nombreux projets aujourd’hui. Il est donc nécessaire, afin d’appréhender correctement ces systèmes de régulation, de comprendre l’origine et de caractériser les acteurs de ces systèmes tels que les ARN et les pseudogènes.Nous avons établi une nouvelle méthode de comparaison d’une séquence ARN requête avec un jeu de séquences ARN cibles. Notre méthode se base sur (i) l’indexation préalable des graines en séquence/structure des ARN du jeu cible, (ii) la recherche des ARN cibles par détection des graines de la séquence requête présentes également dans le jeu de données cible et le chainage de ces graines, puis (iii) la complétion de l’alignement obtenu à l’aide d’un algorithme d’alignement exact incorporant des contraintes d’alignement. Cette méthode a été appliquée sur le jeu de données de BraliBase2.1. L’exactitude des résultats obtenus et l’efficacité de la méthode ont alors été comparés à la méthode d’alignement exact LocARNA et à son filtre basé sur un algorithme de chainage de graines récemment développé, ExpLocP. Notre méthode RNA-unchained permet d’améliorer significativement les temps de calcul de LocARNA et présente des temps de calcul similaires à ExpLocP, tout en améliorant l’exactitude des alignements finaux.De plus, nous avons développé une méthode, PseudOE, de détection et de caractérisation du pseudome au sein d’un génome et d’analyse comparative de ce pseudome entre plusieurs génomes. Cette méthode a ainsi permis de réaliser l’analyse du panpseudome de deux souches relativement distantes de l’espèce Oenococcus oeni et qui présentent des propriétés oenologiques opposées. On observe dans ces génomes compacts, de 1,8Mb, 8,5% de pseudogènes. Par comparaison aux autres génomes bactériens, les génomes d’O. oeni semblent sensibles à la pseudogénisation. La majorité des pseudogènes détectés ont pour origine des mutations de leur séquence et sont présents uniquement dans l’un des génomes, ce qui soutient l’hypothèse d’une origine récente de ces séquences et qui illustre la tendance des O. oeni à l’hypermutabilité. De plus, l’analyse des données fournies par PseudOE a permis la mise en évidence d’une organisation spatiale des pseudogènes au sein de territoires spécifiques du chromosome. L’ensemble de ces analyses illustre les particularités des pseudogènes chez O. oeni et apporte des informations supplémentaires concernant l’évolution des gènes/génomes dont les annotations de génomes pourraient retirer des bénéfices. / The increasing amount of available data is a source of many issues in bioinformatics such that the development of new methods of treatments and efficient analysis of data. Especially, regulatory networks are at the heart of many projects. Also, in order to understand regulatory systems, it appears to be necessary to characterize and to understand actors of these systems such as RNA and pseudogenes. We develop a new method to compare a query RNA with a static set of target RNAs. Our method is based on (i) a preliminary indexing of the sequence/structure seeds of the target RNAs, (ii) searching the potentially homolog RNAs by detecting seeds of the query present in targets, chaining these seeds, then (iii) completing the alignment using an anchor-based exact alignment algorithm. We apply our method on the benchmark Bralibase2.1. We compare our method accuracy and efficiency with the exact method LocARNA and its recent seeds-based speed-up ExpLocP. Our pipeline RNA-unchained greatly improves computation time of LocARNA and is comparable to the one of ExpLocP, while improving the overall accuracy of the final alignments.Moreover, we develop a new method, PseudOE, to detect and to characterize the pseudome of one genome, and to analyse by comparison two genomes at least. This method allows to analyse the pan-pseudome of two distantly related Oenococcus oeni strains with opposite oenological properties. Quite interestingly, with 8.5% of pseudogenes for a compact 1.8Mb genome, O. oeni appeared to be prone to pseudogenization compared to other bacteria. A great proportion of pseudogenes were found to come from mutational degradation suggesting a relatively recent origin that could illustrate the natural propensity of O. oeni for hypermutability. In addition, we identify a spatial organization of pseudogenes into dedicated chromosomal territories. These analysis illustrate peculiar properties of O. oeni pseudogenes, providing additional insights of gene/genome evolution from which future genome annotation will benefit.

Acidophilic iron oxidizing bacteria of the betaproteobacterial genus “Ferrovum” are ubiquitously distributed in acid mine drainage (AMD) habitats worldwide. Since their isolation and maintenance in the laboratory has proved to be extremely difficult, members of this genus are not accessible to a “classical” microbiological characterization with exception of the designated type strain “Ferrovum myxofaciens” P3G. The present study reports the characterization of “Ferrovum” strains at genome and transcriptome level. “Ferrovum” sp. JA12, “Ferrovum” sp. PN-J185 and “F. myxofaciens” Z-31 represent the iron oxidizers of the mixed cultures JA12, PN-J185 and Z-31. The mixed cultures were derived from the mine water treatment plant Tzschelln close to the lignite mining site in Nochten (Lusatia, Germany). The mixed cultures also contain a heterotrophic strain of the genus Acidiphilium. The genome analysis of Acidiphilium sp. JA12-A1, the heterotrophic contamination of the mixed culture JA12, indicates an interspecies carbon and phosphate transfer between Acidiphilium and “Ferrovum” in the mixed culture, and possibly also in their natural habitat. The comparison of the inferred metabolic potentials of four “Ferrovum” strains and the analysis of their phylogenetic relationships suggest the existence of two subgroups within the genus “Ferrovum” (i.e. the operational taxonomic units OTU-1 and OUT-2) harboring characteristic metabolic profiles. OTU-1 includes the “F. myxofaciens” strains P3G and Z-31, which are predicted to be motile and diazotrophic, and to have a higher acid tolerance than OTU-2. The latter includes two closely related proposed species represented by the strains JA12 and PN-J185, which appear to lack the abilities of motility, chemotaxis and molecular nitrogen fixation. Instead, both OTU-2 strains harbor the potential to use urea as alternative nitrogen source to ammonium, and even nitrate in case of the JA12-like species. The analysis of the genome architectures of the four “Ferrovum” strains suggests that horizontal gene transfer and loss of metabolic genes, accompanied by genome reduction, have contributed to the evolution of the OTUs. A trial transcriptome study of “Ferrovum” sp. JA12 supports the ferrous iron oxidation model inferred from its genome sequence, and reveals the potential relevance of several hypothetical proteins in ferrous iron oxidation. Although the inferred models in “Ferrovum” spp. share common features with the acidophilic iron oxidizers of the Acidithiobacillia, it appears to be more similar to the neutrophilic iron oxidizers Mariprofundus ferrooxydans (“Zetaproteobacteria”) and Sideroxydans lithotrophicus (Betaproteobacteria). These findings suggest a common origin of ferrous iron oxidation in the Beta- and “Zetaproteobacteria”, while the acidophilic lifestyle of “Ferrovum” spp. may have been acquired later, allowing them to also colonize acid mine drainage habitats.:EIDESSTATTLICHE ERKLÄRUNG ... 2 CONTENT ... 4 SUMMARY ... 9 CHAPTER I ... 11 ORIGIN AND MICROBIOLOGY OF ACID MINE DRAINAGE ... 11 ACIDOPHILIC IRON OXIDIZING BACTERIA OF THE GENUS “FERROVUM” ... 12 APPLICATION OF OMICS-BASED APPROACHES TO CHARACTERIZE ACIDOPHILES ... 14 AIMS OF THE PRESENT WORK ... 15 CHAPTER II ... 17 ABSTRACT ... 18 INTRODUCTION ... 18 METHODS ... 19 GENOME PROJECT HISTORY ... 19 GROWTH CONDITIONS AND GENOMIC DNA PREPARATION ... 20 GENOME SEQUENCING AND ASSEMBLY ... 20 GENOME ANNOTATION ... 21 RESULTS ... 21 CLASSIFICATION AND FEATURES ... 21 GENOME PROPERTIES ... 24 INSIGHTS FROM THE GENOME SEQUENCE ... 24 COMPARATIVE GENOMICS ... 28 CONCLUSIONS ... 30 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ... 32 AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS ... 32 CHAPTER III ... 33 ABSTRACT ... 34 INTRODUCTION ... 34 METHODS ... 36 ORIGIN AND CULTIVATION OF “FERROVUM” STRAIN JA12 ... 36 GENOME SEQUENCING, ASSEMBLY AND ANNOTATION ... 37 VISUALIZATION OF THE NEARLY COMPLETE GENOME ... 38 PHYLOGENETIC ANALYSIS ... 39 PREDICTION OF MOBILE GENETIC ELEMENTS ... 39 NUCLEOTIDE SEQUENCE ACCESSION NUMBER ... 39 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ... 39 PHYLOGENETIC CLASSIFICATION OF “FERROVUM” STRAIN JA12 ... 39 GENOME PROPERTIES ... 40 NUTRIENT ASSIMILATION AND BIOMASS PRODUCTION ... 44 Carbon dioxide fixation ... 44 Central carbon metabolism ... 45 Nitrogen ... 47 Phosphate ... 49 Sulfate ... 50 ENERGY METABOLISM ... 50 Ferrous iron oxidation ... 50 Other redox reactions connected to the quinol pool ... 54 Predicted formate dehydrogenase ... 55 STRATEGIES TO ADAPT TO ACIDIC ENVIRONMENTS, HIGH METAL LOADS AND OXIDATIVE STRESS ... 55 Acidic environment ... 55 Strategies to cope with high metal and metalloid loads ... 58 Oxidative stress ... 59 HORIZONTAL GENE TRANSFER ... 60 CONCLUSIONS ... 61 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ... 62 AUTHORS\' CONTRIBUTIONS ... 62 CHAPTER IV ... 63 ABSTRACT ... 64 INTRODUCTION ... 64 METHODS ... 66 ORIGIN AND CULTIVATION OF “FERROVUM” STRAINS PN-J185 AND Z-31 ... 66 GENOME SEQUENCING, ASSEMBLY AND ANNOTATION ... 66 PREDICTION OF MOBILE GENETIC ELEMENTS ... 67 COMPARATIVE GENOMICS ... 68 Phylogenomic analysis ... 68 Assignment of protein-coding genes to the COG classification ... 68 Identification of orthologous proteins ... 68 Comparison and analysis of genome architectures ... 69 RESULTS ... 69 GENERAL GENOME FEATURES AND PHYLOGENETIC RELATIONSHIP OF THE FOUR “FERROVUM” STRAINS ... 69 COMPARISON OF INFERRED METABOLIC TRAITS ... 71 Identification of core genes and flexible genes ... 71 Comparison of the central metabolism ... 74 Central carbon metabolism ... 74 Nitrogen metabolism ... 77 Energy metabolism ... 78 Cell mobility and chemotaxis ... 78 Diversity of predicted stress tolerance mechanisms ... 78 Maintaining the intracellular pH homeostasis ... 78 Coping with high metal loads ... 79 Oxidative stress management ... 79 IDENTIFICATION OF POTENTIAL DRIVING FORCES OF GENOME EVOLUTION ... 80 Prediction of mobile genetic elements ... 81 Linking the differences in the predicted metabolic profiles to the genome architectures ... 82 Gene cluster associated with flagella formation and chemotaxis in “F. myxofaciens” ... 84 Gene clusters associated with the utilization of alternative nitrogen sources ... 86 Gene cluster associated with carboxysome formation in “F. myxofaciens” and OTU-2 strain JA12 ... 87 Putative genomic islands in the OTU-strain JA12 ... 89 CRISPR/Cas in “F. myxofaciens” Z-31: a defense mechanism against foreign DNA ... 91 DISCUSSION ... 92 THE COMPARISON OF THEIR METABOLIC PROFILES INDICATES THE EXISTENCE OF OTU- AND STRAIN-SPECIFIC FEATURES ... 92 GENOME EVOLUTION OF THE “FERROVUM” STRAINS APPEARS TO BE DRIVEN BY HORIZONTAL GENE TRANSFER AND GENOME REDUCTION ... 94 Horizontal gene transfer ... 94 Mechanisms of genome reduction ... 95 CONCLUDING REMARKS ... 98 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ... 98 AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS ... 98 CHAPTER V ... 99 ABSTRACT ... 100 INTRODUCTION ... 100 METHODS ... 102 CULTIVATION OF THE “FERROVUM”-CONTAINING MIXED CULTURE JA12 ... 102 Up-scaling of pre-cultures for the transcriptome study ... 103 Experimental setup of the transcriptome study ... 103 Cell harvest from large culture volumes ... 106 EXTRACTION OF TOTAL RNA ... 106 LIBRARY CONSTRUCTION AND SEQUENCING ... 107 DATA ANALYSIS ... 107 Processing of raw data ... 107 Quantification of gene expression levels ... 108 Functional analysis ... 108 RESULTS ... 108 CULTIVATION OF THE MIXED CULTURE JA12 IN THE MULTIPLE BIOREACTOR SYSTEM ... 108 Growth monitoring ... 108 Microbial composition ... 111 RNA SEQUENCING (RNA-SEQ) ... 112 FUNCTIONAL CATEGORIZATION OF EXPRESSED GENES ... 113 Functional assignment of highly expressed genes ... 117 Functional assignment of poorly expressed genes ... 121 COMPARISON OF EXPRESSION LEVELS OF GENES PREDICTED TO BE INVOLVED IN OXIDATIVE STRESS MANAGEMENT ... 122 DISCUSSION ... 124 METABOLIC PATHWAYS RELEVANT UNDER CULTURE CONDITIONS MIMICKING THE NATURAL CONDITIONS IN THE MINE WATER TREATMENT PLANT ... 125 Novel insights into the energy metabolism of “Ferrovum” sp. JA12 ... 125 Insights from poorly expressed genes ... 126 VARIATION OF GENE EXPRESSION PATTERNS UNDER THE DIFFERENT CONDITIONS ... 128 EVALUATION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP INVOLVING THE MULTIPLE BIOREACTOR SYSTEM ... 129 CONCLUDING REMARKS: SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRESENT TRANSCRIPTOME STUDY ... 130 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ... 131 AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS ... 131 CHAPTER VI ... 133 ABSTRACT ... 133 EXTENDED INSIGHTS INTO THE FERROUS IRON OXIDATION IN BETAPROTEOBACTERIA ... 133 MECHANISMS OF PHYLOGENETIC AND METABOLIC DIVERSIFICATION WITHIN THE GENUS “FERROVUM” ... 136 INFERRED ROLES OF “FERROVUM” SPP. IN THE MICROBIAL NETWORK OF THE MINE WATER TREATMENT PLANT ... 138 PERSPECTIVES ... 143 REFERENCES ... 145 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL ... 170 DATA DVD ... 170 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL FOR CHAPTER III ... 171 NUCLEOTIDE ACCESSION NUMBERS ... 171 PHYLOGENETIC ANALYSIS ... 171 GENOME PROPERTIES ... 173 NUTRIENT ASSIMILATION ... 174 Carbon metabolism ... 174 FERROUS IRON OXIDATION ... 176 HORIZONTAL GENE TRANSFER ... 179 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL FOR CHAPTER IV ... 180 PHYLOGENETIC ANALYSIS ... 180 ASSIGNMENT OF PROTEIN-CODING GENES TO THE COG CLASSIFICATION ... 180 COMPARISON OF THE CENTRAL METABOLISM ... 181 Predicted metabolic potential of the four “Ferrovum” strains ... 181 Genes predicted to be involved in the central metabolism, energy metabolism, cell motility and stress management in the four “Ferrovum” strains ... 183 PREDICTED MOBILE GENETIC ELEMENTS IN THE GENOMES OF THE FOUR “FERROVUM” STRAINS ... 184 THE FLAGELLA AND CHEMOTAXIS GENE CLUSTER ... 184 THE UREASE GENE CLUSTER ... 185 THE CARBOXYSOME GENE CLUSTER ... 186 PUTATIVE GENOMIC ISLANDS IN “FERROVUM” SP. JA12 ... 187 Gene content of the genomic islands ... 187 Flanking sites of the putative genomic islands 1 and 2 ... 188 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL FOR CHAPTER V ... 189 ORGANIZATION AND OPERATION OF THE LABFORS 5 MULTIPLE BIOREACTOR SYSTEM ... 189 INVESTIGATION OF THE MICROBIAL COMPOSITION IN THE IRON OXIDIZING MIXED CULTURE JA12 ... 192 SUPPLEMENTARY DATA OF THE TRANSCRIPTOME DATA ANALYSIS ... 193 RNA-Seq statistics ... 193 Expression strength of protein-coding genes ... 194 Expression of genes involved in carboxysome formation ... 197 Expression of a ribosomal proteins-encoding gene cluster ... 199 Expression of a gene cluster presumably involved in ferrous iron oxidation ... 202 Lowest expressed genes ... 205 Expression of genes predicted to be involved in oxidative stress response ... 206 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ... 208 COLLEAGUES ... 208 ERFOLGSTEAM “JUNGE FRAUEN AN DIE SPITZE” (“YOUNG WOMEN TO THE TOP“) ... 208 FAMILY AND FRIENDS ... 209 FUNDING ... 209 CURRICULUM VITAE ... 210 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS ... 212 RESEARCH ARTICLES ... 212 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS ... 212 ORAL PRESENTATIONS AND POSTERS ... 213

Les endophytes sont des microorganismes (généralement des bactéries et des champignons) qui vivent dans les tissus végétaux mais n'activent pas le système immunitaire/défense des plantes, contrairement aux pathogènes végétaux qui activent généralement les réponses immunitaires des plantes. Des recherches récentes ont montré que pratiquement toutes les plantes cultivées en plein champ contiennent un certain nombre d'endophytes, et que certains endophytes stimulent la croissance des plantes et renforcent la résistance contre les agents pathogènes. Les endophytes sécrètent des composés chimiques (métabolites secondaires) qui suppriment la croissance des agents pathogènes, un processus connu sous le nom de biocontrôle. En raison de ces propriétés de biocontrôle, les endophytes sont une alternative potentielle aux pesticides chimiques pour lutter contre les maladies des plantes. En conséquence, le biocontrôle est devenu un domaine de recherche important. Mon projet de recherche comportait les objectifs spécifiques suivants : (i) isoler les endophytes des plants de canneberges acquis auprès de deux producteurs commerciaux de canneberges de la variété Stevens situés au Québec, Canada (Bieler Cranberries Inc, et Gillivert Inc.) ; (ii) tester l'activité de biocontrôle des endophytes contre une collection de champignons pathogènes et ensuite inoculer les endophytes les plus actifs dans des plants de canneberges obtenus par germination de la variété Stevens (Bieler Cranberries Inc. ) et Scarlet Knight (Daniele Landreville) ; et (iii) identifier des groupes de gènes de métabolites secondaires en séquençant, assemblant et annotant le génome d'un endophyte qui présentait de fortes caractéristiques de biocontrôle. Dans le cadre de ce projet de recherche, des tests antagonistes in vitro ont été réalisés avec des endophytes de la canneberge et un champignon pathogène, qui ont montré que Pseudomonas sp. CSWB3, Pseudomonas sp. CLWB12 et la souche fongique Lachnum sp. EFK28 étaient les plus actifs et ces souches ont donc été sélectionnées pour des études plus approfondies. Des expériences de germination de semis in vitro et d'inoculation d'endophytes ont montré que les souches bactériennes Pseudomonas sp. CSWB3 et Pseudomonas sp. CLWB12 amélioraient la croissance des semis de canneberges de la variété Stevens. Comme les Pseudomonas sp. CSWB3 et Pseudomonas sp. CLWB12 ont tous deux un effet antagoniste élevé sur les champignons pathogènes, un seul (Pseudomonas sp. CSWB3) a été soumis à une analyse du génome. Le séquençage, l'assemblage, l'annotation et l'analyse du génome de Pseudomonas sp. CSWB3 a révélé que cette souche possède cinq groupes de gènes biosynthétiques de métabolites secondaires qui codent pour les protéines responsables de la biosynthèse des composés antifongiques/antimicrobiens : pyrrolnitrine, pyoluteorine, putisolvine, 2,4-diacétylephloroglucinol, bicornutine A1 et bicornutine A2. Sur la base des résultats de ces travaux, nous concluons que certains endophytes de la canneberge qui possèdent des groupes de gènes codant pour des métabolites secondaires antifongiques peuvent supprimer les pathogènes fongiques et améliorer la croissance des plantes. / Endophytes are microorganisms (typically bacteria and fungi) that live within plant tissue but do not activate the plant defense/immune system, unlike plant pathogens that typically do activate plant immune responses. Recent research has shown that virtually all plants grown under field conditions contain a number of endophytes, and that certain endophytes stimulate plant growth and enhance resistance against pathogens. Endophytes secrete chemical compounds (secondary metabolites) that suppress pathogen growth, a process known as biocontrol. Because of these biocontrol properties, endophytes are a potential alternative to chemical pesticides for combatting plant disease. Accordingly, biocontrol has become an important field of research. My research project was comprised of the following specific aims: (i) isolate endophytes from cranberry plants that were acquired from two commercial producers of cranberries of the Stevens variety located in Quebec, Canada (Bieler Cranberries Inc, and Gillivert Inc.); (ii) test the biocontrol activity of endophytes against a collection of fungal pathogens and then inoculate the most active endophytes into cranberry seedlings that were obtained by germinating Stevens (Bieler Cranberries Inc.) and Scarlet Knight (Daniele Landreville) seeds; and (iii) identify secondary metabolite gene clusters by sequencing, assembling, and annotating the genome of one endophyte that exhibited strong biocontrol characteristics. As part of this research project, in vitro antagonistic tests were conducted with cranberry endophytes and fungal pathogen, which showed that Pseudomonas sp. CSWB3, Pseudomonas sp. CLWB12, and the fungal strain Lachnum sp. EFK28 were the most active and therefore these strains were selected for further studies. In vitro seedling germination and endophyte inoculation experiments showed that the bacterial strains Pseudomonas sp. CSWB3 and Pseudomonas sp. CLWB12 enhanced the growth of cranberry seedlings of the Stevens variety. Since Pseudomonas sp. CSWB3 and Pseudomonas sp. CLWB12 both had a high antagonistic effect on fungal pathogens, only one (Pseudomonas sp. CSWB3) was subjected to genome analysis. Sequencing, assembly, annotation, and analysis of the Pseudomonas sp. CSWB3 genome revealed that this strain possesses five secondary metabolite biosynthetic gene clusters that encode proteins responsible for the biosynthesis of the antifungal/antimicrobial compounds pyrrolnitrin, pyoluteorin, putisolvin, 2,4-diacetylephloroglucinol, bicornutin A1, and bicornutin A2. Based on the results of this work, we conclude that certain cranberry endophytes that possess gene clusters encoding antifungal secondary metabolites can suppress fungal pathogens and enhance plant growth.

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