Personality variables have been shown to be significant predictors of job performance (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Tett, Jackson, & Rothstein, 1991). Recent advances in methodology for analyzing personality-job performance relationships indicate that interactions among traits may yield incremental validity. Job types in which performance has been shown to relate to trait interactions include clerical jobs, jobs with high interpersonal components, and jobs in realistic and conventional contexts, (Witt, Burke, Barrick, & Mount, 2002; Burke & Witt, 2002; and Burke & Witt, 2004). This study examined the validity of trait interactions for the prediction of managerial job performance. Hypotheses included a main effect for Conscientiousness, an interaction between Conscientiousness and Agreeableness, an interaction between Extraversion and Neuroticism, and finally, a three-way interaction between Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Conscientiousness. An archival dataset from Personnel Decisions, International (n=680 managers) containing GPI personality scores and supervisor-rated performance scores was analyzed to test the hypotheses. Correlations and moderated hierarchical linear regressions were performed to estimate the relationships of the predictors to the criterion, and to learn whether examination of trait interactions contributes incremental validity to the single trait scales. A main effect for Conscientiousness on managerial job performance was found. No trait interactions explained incremental variance in performance scores. Therefore, Conscientiousness is the recommended personality scale to use for selecting managers. This finding is consistent with previous research on the relation of Conscientiousness to job performance in managers (Barrick & Mount, 1991). Managers from diverse organizations and industries comprised the sample, increasing the generalizability of the results. Directions for future research include the examination of other trait interactions, more specific criteria such as competencies rather than overall managerial job performance, and effects of the hierarchical level of the manager in the organization.

The present study attempted to explore the role cultural values play on the relations between personality variables and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Specifically, Schwartz' cultural values of hierarchy and egalitarianism and the personality predictors of conscientiousness and agreeableness were examined. It was hypothesized that hierarchy and egalitarianism would moderate the relationship between conscientiousness, agreeableness and OCB. Specific hypotheses concerning the direction of the influence on particular dimensions of OCB were tested. Data were collected from multiple organizations resulting in a sample of 62 pairs of employee-supervisor dyads from the U.S. and 64 pairs from China. Results indicated that agreeableness correlated significantly with OCB toward individuals and that hierarchy moderated the relationship between conscientiousness and OCB toward the organization. The other hypotheses were not supported. Limitations of the study and implications for future research were also discussed.

The focus of this dissertation is exploring personality factors that impact performance within a small insurance agency. The primary research question is, what is (or are) the best personality factor(s), sub-facets, or constructs, that contribute to increased performance within an insurance agency. Three of the Five-Factor Model dimensions, extroversion, conscientiousness, and openness to experience along with grit and hardiness were examined, as well as their sub-facets. Grit and hardiness were not found to add additional explanation of the variance while five of the sub-facets were found to better explain the variance over the composite dimensions.

For decades, there has been substantial research showing that ability tests effectively predict what people can do, but it is only in the last fifteen years that it has come to be generally accepted that personality is a useful predictor of what they will do. Much of this change in appreciation of the role of personality in predicting performance has been attributed to the application of the Five-Factor Model (FFM) of personality to personality-performance research. The FFM was developed on the basis of the lexical hypothesis, which states that it is advantageous for people to be able to accurately describe the behaviour of others, and therefore the most important dimensions of personality will be encoded in natural languages. An associated premise is that natural language descriptors refer to an individual's surface appearance or reputation (i.e., their observable behaviours), rather than the underlying processes or genotype of personality (i.e., people's cognitive and affective processing). This reasoning was used as the basis for most of the factor-analytical studies of personality descriptors within the English language, and one of the most robust factor solutions was the FFM. The FFM contains the personality dimensions Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Openness to Experience and Emotional Stability. Although the FFM continues to evolve, particularly in response to cross-cultural research, the five basic dimensions appear to be remarkably consistent, and at least the core of each of these has been identified in the first six or seven factors found in every language considered to date. Of the five factors, Conscientiousness has been the one most reliably associated with workplace performance. Workplace performance itself has undergone a major reconsideration over the last fifteen to twenty years. Prior to that time, formal job roles and responsibilities were typically considered the start and finish of performance, but formal job requirements are now recognised as only one aspect of performance, which is increasingly referred to as Task Performance. Task Performance tends to change substantially from job to job, but there are other aspects of job performance, most notably Citizenship Performance, which appear to be consistent in most jobs. Citizenship Performance includes activities undertaken by an employee which facilitate Task Performance, such as making greater effort, complying with rules and procedures, and assisting others. Whereas Task Performance appears to be closely related to an individual's abilities, Citizenship Performance was originally proposed as an aspect of performance which is influenced by attitudinal and personality variables. Thus it has been proposed that Citizenship Performance largely mediates the relationship between personality variables, such as Conscientiousness, and Task Performance. However, this predictors of performance model has previously only been investigated in workplace settings. Yet performance is a relevant construct not only within workplace settings, but also within academic settings. In addition, the FFM dimension of Conscientiousness has been observed to be a reliable predictor of academic performance, just as it is a reliable predictor of workplace performance. Within educational settings, performance is typically tied to assessment measures, such as marks and GPA, which appear to measure academic Task Performance. However, no previous research appears to have considered whether Citizenship Performance mediates the relationship between Conscientiousness and Task Performance within an academic setting. Study One of this dissertation was designed to test this proposition. Participants in this study were 175 students enrolled within an introductory management subject. Participants provided assessments of their own personality using the Mini-Markers (Saucier, 1994), while Citizenship Performance ratings were provided by students' peers, at the end of a three-week group project. The hand-scored version of the Computerised Adaptive Rating Scales (CARS: Borman, 1999; Coleman & Borman, 2000) was used to assess Citizenship, but unfortunately the three scales of the CARS did not demonstrate good internal reliability. Consequently, a factor analysis was conducted to establish a new scale using the CARS items. This new scale, which was labelled Active Support, used six of the twelve CARS items and had satisfactory internal reliability. It was observed that the resulting scores on this Citizenship Performance scale were positively correlated with both Conscientiousness and academic Task Performance (as measured by grades). As predicted, Citizenship Performance entirely mediated the relationship between Conscientiousness and academic Task Performance. Therefore, the results of Study One were consistent with the predictors of performance model. It was concluded that Citizenship Performance is an important component of performance within academic settings, just as it is within workplace settings. Despite the fact that the relationship between both workplace and academic performance, and Conscientiousness, is reliable and well-established, correlations between Conscientiousness and performance tend to be moderate at best. Previous research has observed that other-rated measures of Conscientiousness have higher correlations with academic performance than do self-rated measures. Consequently, Study Two explored whether other-rated Conscientiousness improved the prediction of academic Citizenship and Task Performance, using a similar design to that utilised in Study One. One hundred and twenty-two students participated in Study Two while undertaking the same course as the students who had participated in Study One. Most of the results of Study Two were consistent with expectations, but there were some unexpected outcomes. Other-rated Conscientiousness was found to be a significantly better predictor of both academic Task and Citizenship Performance than was self-rated Conscientiousness. However, contrary to previous ideas, the relationship between other-rated Conscientiousness and Task Performance was not mediated by Citizenship Performance. In contrast, it was observed that the correlation between other-rated Conscientiousness and other-rated Citizenship Performance was .61 if both ratings were obtained from the same raters, and .44 if the two ratings were obtained from independent raters. When corrected for measurement unreliability, these estimates approached unity, which is consistent with the idea that, for the other-raters, Conscientiousness and Citizenship Performance were measuring the same construct. However, this study had several limitations, including its small sample size, the use of an unusual measure for Citizenship Performance, and the fact that it had been conducted in an academic setting. Therefore, there was a need to replicate Study Two before accepting that Conscientiousness and Citizenship Performance are actually much more strongly associated than previous research has indicated. In order to replicate Study Two, while addressing some of its limitations, a third study was conducted within a workplace setting. In Study Three, general staff supervisors within a public university were asked to rate their staff on measures of both personality and Citizenship Performance. In addition to Active Support, the measure used in Studies One and Two, two additional measures were included, which assessed the aspects of Citizenship Performance referred to as Individual Initiative and Helping Behaviour. The FFM dimension of Agreeableness was also added, because previous research indicates that, while Conscientiousness may be a better predictor of Individual Initiative, Helping Behaviour should be more closely associated with the FFM dimension of Agreeableness. However, using multiple ratings derived from the same raters can create common method bias in correlations, and so, in line with previous recommendations (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003), Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was used to control for this. The resulting correlations confirmed that there were strong relationships between the measures of Citizenship Performance and personality. Helping Behaviour had a strong relationship with supervisor-rated Agreeableness (.81), while Individual Initiative was significantly correlated with supervisor-rated Agreeableness (.44) and supervisor-rated Conscientiousness (.32). Active Support had strong correlations with these measures of personality (.57 and .55 respectively). The results of Study Three indicate that, for the participating supervisors, the Helping Behaviour dimension of Citizenship Performance is largely the same as the Agreeableness dimension of personality. Unlike Study Two, Active Support appeared to be not so closely associated with Conscientiousness, but instead seemed to occupy a position halfway between other-rated Conscientiousness and other-rated Agreeableness. Individual Initiative occupies a similar position, but is not so closely linked to these other-rated personality variables. Although these results suggest that, when compared with the students in Study Two, the supervisors in Study Three had a slightly different view of Active Support, it remains clear that much or most of the variance in each of these measures of Citizenship Performance is accounted for by these other-rated measures of personality. In order to understand why the strength of the relationship between the other-rated personality dimensions of Conscientiousness and Agreeableness, and the performance construct of Citizenship Performance, has been overlooked by previous researchers, it was necessary to reconsider the basic reasons for disagreement in ratings. Agreement between raters tends to vary considerably, depending on who is rating whom. Self-other agreement on ratings is typically modest, other-other agreement tends to be higher, but alternate-form and test-retest agreement are typically higher still. The reasons for this appear to be related to the extent to which ratings are produced using similar observations, and integrating these in similar ways, as well as the extent to which ratings are affected by specific aspects of individual rater-ratee relationships. Previous research has provided estimates for these effects which can be used to correct correlations for resulting biases. When these are applied to correlations between ratings of measures, such as performance or personality, which are provided by different other-raters, these correlations approximate unity. This includes the correlations, reported in this dissertation, between other-rated personality and other-rated Citizenship Performance. In conclusion, the results of the research reported in this dissertation are consistent with the idea that measures of Citizenship Performance are largely accounted for by other-rated measures of Conscientiousness and Agreeableness. It is argued that this conclusion is consistent with the lexical hypothesis which underlay the development of the FFM, as well as with the theoretical basis for the construct of performance. The dissertation concludes with a discussion of the implications of this conclusion, for a range of fields, including understanding the relationship between personality and performance, methodological consequences for future research, and practical implications for staff selection and performance appraisal systems.

<p>The term organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB) was first explored by Bateman and Organ (1983) to refer to particular behaviours that may benefit an organisation and gestures that cannot be enforced by means of formal role obligations nor be elicited by contractual guarantee of recompense. Organ (1988) proposes that OCB may have a positive impact on employees and organisational performance. Incumbents who are experiencing satisfaction from performing their jobs are likely to be better ambassadors for the organisation and be committed to their organization (Buitendach, 2005). Silverthorne (2005, p. 171) considers job satisfaction to be important for effective organisations and defines job satisfaction as &ldquo / ... a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one&rsquo / s job&rdquo / . Previous research indicates that individuals are most likely to go beyond their formal job requirements when they are satisfied with their jobs or committed to their organisations, when they are given intrinsically satisfying tasks to complete, and/or when they have supportive or inspirational leaders. Research into Organisational Citizenship behaviour (OCB) has primarily focused on the effects of OCB on individual and organisational performance. Several empirical studies report that OCB produces various tangible benefits for employees, co-workers, supervisors and organisations in a variety of industries (Ackfeldt &amp / Leonard, 2005). It essentially refers to prosocial organisational behaviour that goes beyond what is expected in role descriptions. Bolino, Turnley and Niehoff (2004) claim that three basic assumptions have characterised OCB research. Firstly, they argue that OCB research stemmed from non-self-serving motives such as organisational commitment and job satisfaction. Moreover, they maintain that OCB has led to a more effective functioning of organisations and finally that OCB benefited employees by making organisations more attractive to work in. Murphy, Athansou and King (2002) reported positive relationships between OCB and job satisfaction. Chiu and Chen (2005) investigated the relationship between job characteristics and OCB and recommend that managers enhance employees&rsquo / intrinsic job satisfaction to promote the display of OCB. Most research studies have investigated OCB as an outcome variable with job satisfaction as one of its antecedents. Although the majority of researchers contend that OCB is an outcome of job satisfaction, some research indicates that the two variables can function as antecedents or consequences or there may well be a reciprocal relationship between the two variables. This study endeavours to elucidate the factors that are postulated to produce job satisfaction and organisational citizenship behaviour, based on a sample of 133 employees in a retail organisation in the Western Cape. The results indicate that there are significant relationships between biographical characteristics and job satisfaction, between the dimensions of OCB and job satisfaction and between the job satisfaction dimensions and OCB.</p>

Occupational safety has once again become an inviting area of research and application for organizational researchers. Researchers have abandoned the search for the accident-prone employee and begun to identify the underlying symptoms that might lead to unsafe behaviors and accidents. The current research built upon theory and recent findings by integrating regulatory focus theory into an interactional model of occupational safety and productivity in an attempt to explain and predict safety performance and speed performance. Using a sample of facility workers (i.e., building and landscape development and maintenance, n = 251) a cross-level model of relationships was investigated that links facets of conscientiousness (dependability and achievement) and climate (safety and productivity) to facets of performance (safety and speed) via regulatory focus (prevention and promotion). Results indicated that both climates and personality facets were important predictors of prevention while achievement and production climate predicted promotion. In turn prevention positively predicted safety and negatively predicted speed while promotion positively predicted speed and negatively predicted safety. Most interesting were the findings that prevention carried the effects of both climates and conscientiousness facets to safety and speed performance and promotion carried the effects of production and achievement to speed and safety performance. Results failed to support any cross-level interactions between climate and personality in predicting regulatory focus. It appears that regulatory focus is indeed an important construct in occupational safety and that both individual and contextual characteristics uniquely play an important role in predicting ones regulatory focus.

Emotional expression has played an important role in our social life. This is especially true for leaders who have unequal power during the interaction with followers. According to the EASI model, we explored whether supervisor¡¦s negative emotional expression influenced follower¡¦s task performance by examining the moderating effects of follower's conscientiousness, agreeableness, power distance orientation, and perceived supervisor power on such relationship. In present study, we collected data from 34 companies of different kinds of industries, including 191 leader-follower dyads from 86 supervisors and 191 followers. The results of the hierarchical regression analysis showed that followers¡¦ conscientiousness and agreeableness positively moderated the relationship between supervisor¡¦s negative emotion expression and follower¡¦s task performance. Furthermore, under the condition of follower¡¦s low power distance orientation and low perceived supervisor power, the relationship between supervisor¡¦s negative emotion expression and follower¡¦s task performance became negative. Finally, theoretical and practical implications of our findings are also discussed.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of employee motives regarding select leadership-OCB relationships. Based on previous research, it was hypothesized that the relationships observed between transformational leadership and various dimensions of OCB would be mediated by subordinate Organizational Concern. In contrast, the relationship between LMX-quality and subordinate Altruism was predicted to be either mediated or moderated by subordinate Prosocial Values. Two hundred and one part-time and full-time employees (subordinates and supervisors) served as participants in this study, representing a total of 13 organizations in the Southeast United States. Results were based on a final sample of 131 supervisor-subordinate pairs. In general, participants responded to questionnaires that measured transformational leadership, LMX-quality, and OCB Motives (i.e., Prosocial Values, Organizational Concern, and Impression Management). Both subordinate and supervisor ratings of OCB were also collected. Analyses were based upon Baron and Kennys (1986) approach for mediation and moderation, as well as the Aroian version (1944/1947) of the Sobel test (1982). Across self- and supervisor-reports of OCB, results revealed that the Organizational Concern Motive significantly mediated the relationship between transformational leadership and various dimensions of OCB (Conscientiousness, Sportsmanship, Courtesy, and Civic Virtue). Results also supported the Prosocial Values Motive as a partial mediator in the relationship between LMX-quality and self-reported Altruism. Surprisingly, a stronger mediating effect was consistently observed for the Organizational Concern Motive across both leadership styles and all five of Organs (1988) OCB dimensions. In contrast, no evidence was found for either motive with regard to moderation. Results also differed based on leadership perspective (subordinate versus supervisor). Taken as a whole, these results suggest that both transformational leadership and LMX-quality are strongly associated with an employees general concern for the organization. This motive is, in turn, associated with a variety of citizenship behaviors. In summary, this evidence addresses an important gap in the OCB literature by providing evidence for an indirect relationship between leadership perceptions and OCB.

Forskningen kring sambandet mellan ADHD och olika personlighetsdrag är fortfarande begränsad. Syftet med den föreliggande studien var att undersöka skillnader inom de fem personlighetsdimensionerna (Big Five) mellan personer med en ADHD diagnos och de utan diagnos i Sverige. De personer med ADHD förväntades uppvisa lägre grad av Conscientiousness och Agreeableness samt högre grad av Neuroticism än de utan denna diagnos. Totalt 140 unga vuxna med eller utan ADHD problematik fyllde i ett Big Five test. Resultaten visade att de med ADHD rapporterade signifikant lägre grad av Agreeableness och Conscientiousness men högre grad av Neuroticism än de utan denna nedsättning. Resultaten var i linje med tidigare forskning och studiens begränsningar diskuterades samt förslag på vidare studier inom detta område.

There is relatively little research based on the Big Five personality dimensions and job satisfaction and the relationship thereof. Job satisfaction of employees is a good indication of organisational effectiveness and is influenced by organisational and dispositional factors. The fundamental nature of the dispositional approach is that individuals have stable traits that significantly influence their affective and behavioural reactions to organisational settings. Job satisfaction can be considered a general feeling of well-being experienced by any employee about the work he or she does or as a related collection of attitudes about various aspects of the job. Employees, who perform at higher levels, will most likely make a greater contribution in the organisation. These individual's are more likely to achieve greater status; thus the importance of having satisfied employees in any organisation. The general objective of this study was to determine the relationship between personality dimensions and job satisfaction of engineers in a petro-chemical organisation. A cross-sectional survey design was used in the empirical study. The sample consisted of 89 junior to middle level engineers within a petro-chemical organisation. The Minnesota Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) and the Personality Characteristics Inventory (PCI) were administered. Descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data. Cronbach alpha coefficients, inter-item correlation coefficients and confirmatory factor analysis were used to assess the reliability and validity of the measuring instruments. Pearson and Spearman correlation coefficients were used to specify the relationships between the variables. Multiple regression analysis was used to determine which personality dimensions were the best predictors of job satisfaction. The current research found that employees who are more stable and introverted tend to be more satisfied with achievement, independence as well as human and technical supervision at the work place. It was also established that extraverted and sociable individuals in the organization are less satisfied with human supervision. The findings of this research showed that some personality dimensions are related to aspects of job satisfaction However, overall personality dimensions explained relatively small percentages in the variance of job satisfaction. Because of this, the situational frame of reference, which is most common at present within the workplace, as well as the frame of reference that most supports this research, job satisfaction/dissatisfaction, is alleged to result from the nature of the job or h m the conditions at work. This basically epitomizes the effects of situational forces on workers' job attitudes. The results showed that subscales predicted job satisfaction to a greater extent than personality dimensions. Recommendations for future research were made. / Thesis (M.A. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.