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In April 2021, the military in Chad seized power upon the death of its President Idriss Deby whiles in the field fighting the rebel group Fighters of the Front for Change and Concord in Chad (FACT). By the end of 2021, soldiers had toppled elected governments in Mali, Guinea Conakry, and Sudan. The African Union and its relevant sub-regional organizations reacted by suspending all the countries above from participating in its activities as provided for in its constitutive act with a curious exception of Chad. Using a qualitative content approach of the African Union Peace and Security Council communiques and press releases, this research investigates the factors that influenced this inconsistent response of the AU. The central argument that is defended in this research is that the African Union put security considerations ahead of good governance by considering the unique security challenges in the Sahel region and Lake Chad Basin and the importance a stable Chad plays in the sub-regional fight against violent extremism. This is reinforced by the influence of France’s support to the military in Chad, the silent of the sub-regional economic community of Central Africa on the ongoing situation in Chad and a divided Peace and Security Council of the African Union. This thesis employs constructivism and rational choice theory as a theoretical framework.

<p>The main aim of this PhD dissertation is to investigate the inherent and induced anisotropy in granular materials. The study includes both the experimental and theoretical aspects and provides a methodology for characterizing the mechanical response of granular materials that display anisotropy.</p> <p>The content of this thesis is divided into two main parts. The first part is focused on investigating the mechanical properties of materials with inherent anisotropy. In particular, an experimental program designed to investigate the mechanical properties of Ottawa standard sand (C109), with inherent anisotropy that is generated by the initial densification process, is described. The program involves a series of direct shear as well as triaxial axial tests. Its primary objective is to demonstrate that anisotropy may occur in sands that have nearly spherical particles (i.e. are typically considered as isotropic) provided the distribution of pore space has a preferred orientation due to the initial densification process. Following the experimental part, the mathematical formulation based on the Critical Plane Approach (CPA) is presented for describing anisotropic mechanical behavior of the material. The procedure for identification of parameters embedded in the constitutive model is outlined and an extensive numerical analysis is conducted simulating the experimental tests.</p> <p>The second part of this thesis deals with induced anisotropy and its focus is on developing an evolution law for the fabric of particulate materials as a function of continuing deformation. The microstructure descriptors are based on lineal intercept measurements and include the areal porosity and the mean intercept length distribution. The methodology involves performing a series of Discrete Element simulations for a granular assembly under evolving directions of the principal stress/strain and defining a correlation with the evolution of material axes. It is demonstrated that granular materials with spherical particles may become anisotropic due to the initial compaction process and that the induced anisotropy is characterized by the coaxiality between the microstructure and the total strain tensors. The proposed evolution law is incorporated into the constitutive framework for anisotropic materials, as discussed in the first part, and some numerical simulations are conducted. It is demonstrated that the proposed approach can describe, at least in a qualitative manner, several manifestations of induced anisotropy in granular materials.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

This study has two parts. In the first part we develop a computational approach to the solution of an inverse modelling problem concerning the material properties of electrolytes used in Lithium-ion batteries. The dependence of the diffusion coefficient and the transference number on the concentration of Lithium ions is reconstructed based on the concentration data obtained from an in-situ NMR imaging experiment. This experiment is modelled by a system of 1D time-dependent Partial Differential Equations (PDE) describing the evolution of the concentration of Lithium ions with prescribed initial concentration and fluxes at the boundary. The material properties that appear in this model are reconstructed by solving a variational optimization problem in which the least-square error between the experimental and simulated concentration values is minimized. The uncertainty of the reconstruction is characterized by assuming that the material properties are random variables and their probability distribution estimated using a novel combination of Monte-Carlo approach and Bayesian statistics. In the second part of this study, we carefully analyze a number of secondary effects such as ion pairing and dendrite growth that may influence the estimation of the material properties and develop mathematical models to include these effects. We then use reconstructions of material properties based on inverse modelling along with their uncertainty estimates as a framework to validate or invalidate the models. The significance of certain secondary effects is assessed based on the influence they have on the reconstructed material properties. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

During high strain rate deformations of metals and metallic alloys, narrow regions of intense plastic deformations have been observed experimentally. The phenomenon is termed strain localization and is usually a precursor to catastrophic failure of a structure. Similar phenomenon has been observed in glassy polymers deformed both at slow and high strain rates. Whereas strain localization is attributed to material softening due to thermal heating in metallic alloys, it is believed to be due to the reorganization of the molecular structure in polymers. Here we numerically study the strain localization in Tungsten Heavy Alloys (WHAs), and glassy polymers. WHAs are heterogeneous materials and thus inhomogeneities in deformations occur simultaneously at several places. Thus strains may localize into narrow bands at one or more places depending upon the microstructure of the alloy. We analyze the strain localization phenomenon during explosion and implosion of WHA hollow cylinders. We have developed a procedure to generate three-dimensional microstructures from planar images so that the two have the same 2-point correlation function. The WHA considered here is comprised of W particulates in a Nickel-Iron (NiFe) matrix, and each constituent is modeled as a heat conducting, strain hardening, strain-rate hardening and thermally softening elastic-plastic material. Furthermore, the porosity is taken to evolve in each constituent and the degradation of material properties due to porosity is incorporated into the problem formulation. It is found that the strain localization initiation in WHA hollow cylinders does not significantly depend on microstructural details during either explosive or implosive loading. However, the number of disconnected regions of localized deformations is influenced by the microstructure. We have generalized constitutive equations for high strain rate deformations of two glassy polymers, namely, Polycarbonate (PC) and poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA). These have been validated by comparing computed results with test findings in uniaxial compression at different axial strain rates, and subsequently used to study strain localization in a plate with a through-the-thickness elliptic hole at the centroid and pulled axially at a nominal strain rate of 5,000 /s. For the problems studied, the intensely deformed narrow regions have very high shear strains in WHAs, but large axial strains in glassy polymers. / Ph. D.

A soil-bentonite cutoff wall is a type of subsurface vertical barrier constructed by back-filling a trench with a mixture of soil, bentonite, and water. Although soil-bentonite cutoff walls are common, their mechanical behavior is not well understood. Current design procedures do not consider the final stress state of the consolidated soil-bentonite backfill or deformations in adjacent ground. The final stress state in the completed wall is important because it influences the hydraulic conductivity of the cutoff (Barrier 1995), the cutoff's susceptibility to hydraulic fracture, and the magnitude of deformations adjacent to the cutoff wall. Deformations adjacent to the cutoff wall can be significant and can cause damage to adjacent structures. The objectives of this research are to 1) add to the current body of knowledge of the properties of soil-bentonite mixtures, 2) evaluate constitutive models and select a model to represent soil-bentonite, 3) model a soil-bentonite cutoff wall using finite elements, and 4) investigate the influence of several factors on the deformations in adjacent ground. These objectives were met by first summarizing information from the literature on soil-bentonite properties and then performing a laboratory testing program on different soil-bentonite mixtures. Five constitutive models were evaluated to determine how well they match the data from the laboratory testing program. A model referred to as the RS model was chosen to best represent soil-bentonite, and provided a good match of the soil-bentonite behavior. The RS model, which is a special case of a more complicated existing model, is a non-associative Modified Cam Clay type model that has parameters to change the yield surface and plastic potential surface into ellipses of varying shapes. The RS model was implemented into the finite element program SAGE. A finite element model was developed using SAGE to simulate all stages of construction of a soil-bentonite cutoff wall including excavation of a trench under bentonite-water slurry, replacement of the bentonite-water slurry with soil-bentonite backfill, and consolidation of the soil-bentonite backfill. The model was calibrated with a well-documented case history, and predicted deformations in adjacent ground were close to measured deformations. Evaluation of the model indicates that there is good confidence in the prediction of deformations in adjacent ground, but there is lower confidence in the predicted stresses in the consolidated soil-bentonite and settlement of the backfill in the trench. A parametric study was then performed using the finite element model assuming sand sites of varying density and OCR. Deformations in adjacent ground were calculated for various soil conditions, soil-bentonite properties, and trench configurations. A correlation was found between maximum calculated settlement in adjacent ground and factor of safety against trench / Ph. D.

The coastal population is growing, putting extra stress on coastal sediments and protection features, such as beach dunes. Moreover, global warming will increase the frequency of storms, and coastal dunes and other defense infrastructure will be subjected to increased erosion and scouring, endangering the people they are meant to protect. Understanding soil dynamics and fluid interaction is crucial to predict the effects of sand erosion. In particular, the study of wind erosion of sands in coastal dunes is essential due to the protective role these earthen structures have during storm events. One of the challenges about predicting wind erosion in coastal dunes is its extended spatial scale and the associated economic and logistics costs of sampling and characterizing the sediments. Because of this, in-situ testing for sediment characterization is essential. In particular, the usage of free-fall penetrometers (FFP) is appealing due to their portability and robustness. The sediment properties obtained with this type of testing can later be used to assess wind erosion susceptibility by determining, for example, the wind velocity to initiate the erosion process. FFP testing involves dropping an instrumented probe that impacts the soil and measures the kinematics or kinetics during the penetration process. For example, deceleration measurements are used to compute an equivalent quasi-static failure, which is not in line with the dynamic process characteristic of FFP testing. This preassumed failure mechanism is used to back-calculate the sand's geomechanical properties. However, soil behavior is highly complex under rapid loading, and incorporating this behavior into FFP sediment characterization models is challenging. Advanced numerical modeling can improve the understanding of the physics behind FFP testing. This thesis presents various advancements in numerical modeling and erosion models to bridge FFP in-situ testing with predicting the initiation of wind erosion of sands. First, improvements oriented to the Material Point Method (MPM) for modeling in-situ FFP testing are proposed. The numerical results show that the simulation of FFP deployment in sands is affected by strain localization and highlight the importance of considering constitutive models sensitive to different loading rates. Because of the importance of rate effects in soil behavior, the second aspect of this thesis proposes a novel consistency framework. Two constitutive models are adapted to study strain-rate sensitive non-cohesive materials: i) a strain-softening Mohr-Coulomb, and ii) a NorSand model. In addition to increased strength, the proposed framework captures increased dilatation, an early peak deviatoric stress, and relaxation. Finally, a novel sand erosion model is derived using a continuum approximation and limit equilibrium analysis. The erosion law considers geotechnical parameters, the effects of slope, and moisture suction, in a combined manner. The proposed model is theoretically consistent with existing expressions in the literature. It covers a wide range of environmental and geometrical conditions and helps to reconcile the results from FFP testing with the prediction of the initiation of wind erosion. The model was validated in a wind tunnel and is demonstrated to be a viable alternative for predicting sand erosion initiation. This thesis opens up new research prospects, such as improving the soil characterization models or the direct prediction of sand erosion using rapid, reliable, and efficient in-situ testing methods. / Doctor of Philosophy / With global warming and climate change, it is expected that the frequency and intensity of storms will increase. This increment will put extra stress on coastal sediments such as beach sand and coastal dunes, making them prone to erosion. Coastal dunes lose their ability to withstand storms as they erode, potentially making coastal flooding more frequent. In light of this, all stakeholders involved in the protection against coastal disasters must have the tools to predict, prepare for, and mitigate for situations like the ones stated above. An essential aspect of the prediction component is dependent on a successful sediment characterization, for example, determining how much wind the sand can withstand before it erodes. Free-fall penetrometers (FFP) are devices designed to conduct the characterization mentioned above. However, the procedures used to perform this characterization are mainly based on empirical or semi-empirical expressions. Computer models, capable of simulating the physics behind FFP testing, can bring more insight into the process of interaction between FFP devices, sands, and water and can be the basis to improve the characterization methods. The latter results can be utilized for instance to predict wind erosion, including several properties of the sand, such as its mineralogy and shape. This study contributes to developing the computer simulations of FFP deployment and the wind erosion prediction models. Eventually, these developments can help engineers and coastal managers to anticipate and prepare for more frequent coastal hazards.