Background: The slaughter of pregnant cattle and the fate of the foetuses are relatively new subjects in the field of animal welfare. The Scientific Committee on Veterinary Measures relating to Public Health (SCVPH), however, does not believe this topic to be a critical issue because of the hitherto supposed rare occurrence of this practice. Some previous studies though, contradict this assessment, emphasising its relevance to animal welfare. With regard to the heterogeneous study design of previous investigations, the objective of this study is to evaluate the current situation concerning the slaughter of pregnant cattle in different German abattoirs. Additionally, the prevalence was assessed semi-quantitatively on the basis of a cross-sectional, voluntary and anonymous survey that was conducted amongst senior veterinary students of the University of Leipzig from 2010 until 2013. Results: Of 255 evaluable questionnaires, 157 (63.6 %) mention the slaughter of pregnant cattle, corresponding to 76.9 % of all visited abattoirs. Slaughter of pregnant cattle is reported often (>10 % of females) in 6 (3.8 %), frequently (1–10 % of females) in 56 (35.7 %), and rarely (<1 % of females) in 95 (60.5 %) of all cases (n = 157) respectively. About 50 % of these animals were reported to be in the second or third stage of gestation. 15 (10.6 %) of 142 questionnaires providing information about the foetus, state that the foetus showed visible vital signs after the death of the mother, but in one case the foetus was euthanized subsequently. Conclusions: The results show that the slaughter of pregnant cattle is a common and widespread practice in German abattoirs. The SCVPH’s assumption that pregnant cattle are only slaughtered in rare exceptional cases can no longer be maintained. The high proportion of foetuses in the second and third gestational stage must also be considered. In this context the implementation of suitable studies and detailed analysis of the current situation is indispensable to ensure the high standards in animal welfare in Germany and Europe.

Thesis (MComm.)--Stellenbosch University, 2001. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In recent years the importance and number of users of electronic commerce and its medium, the Internet, have grown substantially. Despite this, the Business-to- Consumer sector has shown slow expansion and limited growth, with the majority of consumers slow to adopt the Internet as a medium for purchase. A probable factor affecting the purchasing behaviour of individuals is the perception of risk of a breach in (credit card) security and/or a violation of privacy. The research discussed here indicates that two closely related constructs, namely perceived privacy risk and perceived security risk exerts an influence on the Internet purchasing behaviour of Internet users, and more importantly, the intention to purchase. In addition, the role of social pressures regarding the provision of personal and credit card information is indicated to be of considerable importance. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die afgelope aantal jare het die belangrikheid en gebruik van eletroniese handel en die Internet aansienlik toegeneem. Ongeag hierdie groei het die sektor gemoeid met die handel tussen besighede en verbruikers egter beperkte groei getoon. 'n Waarskynlike rede vir die tendens in Internet aankoop gedrag is die persepsie dat daar 'n risiko is van misbruik van 'n krediet kaart sowel as misbruik en skending van privaatheid. Die studie wat hier bespreek word toon aan dat twee nou verwante kostrukte, naamlik persepsie van sekuriteits- en persepsie van privaatheidsrisiko 'n rol speel in die bepaling van Internet aankoop gedrag, sowel as die intensie om te koop. Verder is die rol van sosiale druk rakende die verskaffing van persoonlike en krediet kaart inligting uitgelig as 'n faktor van uiterste belang.

全球化妝品與美容相關巿場高達2000億美元，該產業並以每年7%速度成長，超出世界ＧＤＰ成長率的兩倍之多，不止是國外廠商搶攻此巿場，本土業者亦在近年來開始注意本產業，然化妝品直接施用於身體，對人體之健康影響不可小覷，當然各國也訂定了許多相關的管理法規，惟不同國家對本產品之態度不盡相同，法令亦各有其特色。本產業在國內的發展亦十分的蓬勃，除了國外的知名品牌之外，眾多本土品牌堀起亦可說是百家爭鳴，但相對的，也產生了許多的問題，特別是在消費者保護的層面，不論是在產品安全或是不實廣告還有標示，皆有許多需要大眾去關切的問題。 論文的第一章為緒論，介紹本篇論文研究動機、目的，研究範圍及方法，並且對全球化妝品產業現況行初步的分析，第二章則對台灣、美國、歐盟及中國的化妝品相關法律規定作分析比較，先簡介各國產業之化妝品法規概況，再整理比較各國化妝品法律規定之異同，介紹新的立法趨勢。第三章將特別討論台灣化妝品產業之消費爭議中產品責任的部份；第四章則討論標示及廣告的議題，並且再介紹化妝品業發展較成熟的歐洲，如何注重研發，並利用智財的策略來提升其競爭力，第五章為結論，綜合前述討論，對台灣的化妝品法規及化妝品產業提出建議及對未來的展望。 　　 論文透過比較各國化妝品法規的方式來了解國內外法律規定的不同，在探討各國對化妝品之定義之後，進一步整理各國化妝品相關之法律規定，檢討其異同並且對各國化妝品法規及管理做初步的檢討，總的來說化妝品法規基本上規範了化妝品的輸入及販賣、製造、抽查及取締及相關罰則，基本上是化妝品製造商、販賣商或進口商最需要重視的法規，然而在規定中，還是有與消費者有直接關係的部份，即是：標籤、仿單及包裝的部份，標籤和仿單是消費者購買商品時，對於該化妝品的成分、用途、用法、保存期限等重要資訊最直接的資訊來源，本論文針對該部份的法律問題行較深的著墨，由於我國本產業有大量的消費者保護爭議，主要兩大問題為產品安全及廣告不實，因此在論文的後半部對於消費者保護法及和廣告相關之法令和公平交易法等法進行探討，並且提出相關案例來對應，由實際案例找出台灣化妝品法規現有的問題。 本研究之最終目的乃是希望為台灣的化妝品相關法規，提供更完善的規範，特別是以能提供給消費者更多保護的角度來發展，期能透過比較各國化妝品相關法規的內容以及現在和未來的趨勢，以做為台灣的參考，並且各種化妝品爭議案例的評析，希望能給政府、消費者或是業者進一步的參考！

Prävalenz und geographische Verteilung des Duncker´schen Muskelegels (Alaria-alata-Mesozerkarie) in Wildschweinen (Sus scrofa) im Freistaat Sachsen Institut für Lebensmittelhygiene der Veterinärmedizinischen Fakultät der Universität Leipzig Eingereicht im Juni 2016 (97 Seiten, 30 Abbildungen, 24 Tabellen, 276 Literaturangaben, 12 Anhänge) Einleitung: Entgegen früherer Lehrmeinungen, dass der Duncker´sche Muskelegel (DME) ein seltener, harmloser und vernachlässigbarer Nebenbefund der Trichinellen-Untersuchung sei, ist heute belegt, dass dieses mesozerkariale Stadium der zoonotische Trematode Alaria alata ein potentielles Gesundheitsrisiko darstellt. Die Symptome der humanen larvalen Alariose reichen von leichten kutanen Krankheitszeichen bis hin zu einem letalen anaphylaktischen Schock, wobei vor allem die okuläre Infestation häufig beschrieben wurde. Berichte von Erkrankungen innerhalb Deutschlands fehlen bislang, gleichwohl muss aufgrund der geringen Bekanntheit der Zoonose mit einer Dunkelziffer gerechnet werden. Das Bundesinstitut für Risikobewertung empfiehlt daher, DME-positive Wildschweine als untauglich für den menschlichen Verzehr zu beurteilen; allerdings kam es bisher zu keiner allgemeingeltenden Durchsetzung dieser Empfehlung. Seit 2002 kam es vermehrt zu Zufallsfunden des DME während der gesetzlich vorgeschriebenen Untersuchung von Wildschweinfleisch auf Trichinellen. Die künstliche Verdauung mittels Magnetrührverfahren ist jedoch aufgrund der erheblichen biologischen Unterschiede zwischen Trichinella spp. und A. alata für den Nachweis des DME ungeeignet. Die Alaria spp. mesocercariae migration technique (AMT) stellt eine wesentlich geeignetere und validierte Methode zum Nachweis dieses Parasiten dar. Aufgrund der humanpathogenen Bedeutung sind allein zufällige Nachweise der Mesozerkarie aus Sicht des Verbraucherschutzes nicht hinzunehmen, dennoch ist die AMT bislang kein vorgeschriebenes Verfahren zur Untersuchung von Wildschweinen. Zielstellung: Bislang wurden Prävalenzen des Parasiten beim Schwarzwild größtenteils mit dem Magnetrührverfahren im Rahmen der amtlichen Trichinellen-Untersuchung erhoben, wobei aufgrund der dafür ungeeigneten Methodik von einer erheblichen Untererfassung ausgegangen werden muss. In der vorliegenden Arbeit sollte erstmals ein umfassendes, flächendeckendes Monitoring realisiert und durch den Einsatz der AMT verlässliche Daten zur Prävalenz und Befallsintensität des DME beim Wildschwein erhoben werden. Außerdem sollten potentielle Risikofaktoren wie Lebensraum, Alter, Geschlecht und Gewicht der Wildschweine sowie saisonale Einflüsse und Verbreitungsschwerpunkte ermittelt und beurteilt werden. Um all diese Faktoren berücksichtigen zu können, sollte ein hoher Anteil der gesamten sächsischen Jagdstrecke untersucht werden. Material und Methoden: Im Untersuchungszeitraum Juli 2014 bis August 2015 wurden insgesamt 7.303 Gewebeproben (Zwerchfell, Zunge, Zwischenrippenmuskulatur) von Wildschweinen mithilfe der AMT untersucht. Die aus dem gesamten Bundesland Sachsen stammenden Proben wurden anhand der Erlegungsorte der Tiere den 13 sächsischen Landkreisen/kreisfreien Städten zugeteilt. Ergebnisse: Insgesamt wurde ca. 26 % der sächsischen Schwarzwildstrecke untersucht. Davon waren 243 (3,3 %) Wildschweine DME-positiv, welche in 10 (76,9 %) der 13 Gebiete erlegt wurden. Die Prävalenzen in den einzelnen Gebieten lagen zwischen 0,2 % und 27,7 %. Bei der statistischen Auswertung ergab sich ein starker Zusammenhang zwischen der Wasserfläche und der Prävalenz der untersuchten Gebiete (rs = 0,8880). Im Jahresverlauf wurde deutlich, dass der absolut höchste Anteil DME-positiver Tiere an untersuchten Tieren im April (10,2 %) bzw. Mai (10,9 %) und der absolut niedrigste Anteil im November (0,5 %) zu verzeichnen war. In den positiven Proben (30 g) wurden im Durchschnitt 5,6 (Median 2) DME nachgewiesen. Die Befallsintensität variierte dabei von 1 bis 268 DME pro Probe. Schlussfolgerungen: Die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit erhobenen exakten Informationen zur Prävalenz von DME beim Wildschwein sollen als Basis für den Schutz sowohl von Verbrauchern als auch der Jägerschaft dienen. Daraus können rechtliche Grundlagen einer angemessenen fleischhygienerechtlichen Beurteilung DME-positiver Wildschweine erarbeitet werden, um Unsicherheiten im vorbeugenden Verbraucherschutz sowie wirtschaftliche Verluste zu vermeiden. Es wurde deutlich, dass das Vorkommen von DME je nach Jagdgebiet sehr stark variiert und mit der Wasserfläche des Gebietes zusammenhängt. Darüber hinaus scheint auch die Jahreszeit, in der das Wildschwein erlegt wurde, eine bedeutende Rolle zu spielen. Diese kritischen Punkte müssen in der Kontrolle der Humanexposition mit dem DME durch Wildschweinfleisch größere Beachtung finden. Die Untersuchung von Wildschweinfleisch auf den DME sollte mit der geeigneten und amtlich anerkannten AMT, insbesondere in Gebieten mit Wasserflächen, zukünftig routinemäßig durchgeführt werden. / Prevalence and geographical distribution of the Duncker’s musklefluke (Alaria alata mesocercariae) in wild boars (Sus scrofa) in the Free State of Saxony Institute of Food Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig Submitted in June 2016 (97 pages, 30 figures, 24 tables, 276 references, 12 appendices) Introduction: Contrary to former expert opinion considering the Alaria alata mesocercariae as a rare, harmless and negligible subsidiary finding during the trichinella examination there is clear evidence today that the mesocercarial stage of the zoonotic trematode Alaria alata represents a potential health risk. The clinical signs of human larval alariosis range from mild cutaneous symptoms up to a letal anaphylactical shock, the occular infestation being the most frequently described. Although there have no such cases been reported in Germany so far an estimated number of unknown cases must be assumed due to the low level of awareness of this zoonosis. Thus, the Federal Institute of Risk Assessment recommends that Alaria alata mesocercariae positive wild boar meat should not be released for human consumption; a general enforcement of this recommendation, however, has not been implemented so far. Increased incidental findings of mesocercariae have been reported during the official examination for trichinella in wild boar meat since 2002. But the artificial digestion by magnetic stirrer method is not suitable for the detection of the parasite because of the significant biological diversity of Trichinella spp. and Alaria alata. The Alaria spp. mesocercariae migration technique (AMT) offers a far more applicable and validated method to detect this parasite. Purely incidental findings of the mesocercariae are not acceptable from the consumer protection`s perspective because of their significance in human pathogenicity, but so far the AMT has not been established as a stipulated method for the examination of wild boar meat. Objective: Prevalences of the parasite in wild boar have mainly been assertained by the magnetic stirrer method during the official trichinella inspection so far where a substantial failure frequency as a result of the inadequate method has to be assumed. The present study was aimed to realize a comprehensive, wide-spread monitoring for the first time and to acquire reliable data about prevalence and infestation density of the A. alata mesocercariae in wild boars by applying the AMT. In addition potential risk factors like habitat, age, gender and weight of the examined animals as well as seasonal influences and distribution centers had to be inspected and evaluated. To take all these factors into consideration a large number of wild boar of the whole Saxon hunting bag had to be examined. Material and methods: In the course of the examination period from July 2014 to August 2015 a total of 7.303 tissue samples (diaphragm, tongue, intercostal muscles) taken from wild boars were examined by using the AMT. The samples, originating from different areas all over the Federal State of Saxony, were assigned to the 13 administrative districts/cities based on the place of their hunting. Results: Approximately 26% oft he wild boars hunting bag of Saxony was examined. 243 (3.3 % ) of the wild boars hunted in 10 (76.9 %) of the 13 districts were A. alata mesocercariae positive.The prevalences in the different districts ranged from 0.2 % to 27.7 %. The statistical evaluation revealed a strong correlation between the share of water areas and the parasite prevalence in the examined district (rs = 0.8880). During the course of the year it became obvious that the absolutely highest percentage of positive animals from all examined wild boars was recorded in April (10.2 %) and May (10.9 %), the absolutely lowest percentage in November (0.5 %). Inside the positive samples (30 g) an average of 5,6 (median 2) mesocercariae could be detected, where the infestation density varied between 1 and 268 mesocercariae per sample. Conclusions: The exact data about the prevalence of A. alata mesocercariae in wild boar meat compiled and evaluated in this study should serve as a foundation for the protection of consumers as well as of hunters. Based on this information legal bases for an adequate meat hygiene assessment of A. alata mesocercariae positive wild boars could be drafted to avoid uncertainty in preventive consumers protection as well as economic losses. The study showed that the occurence of the parasite varied to a large extent according to the hunting area and in dependence on the size of water area. Furthermore the season in which the animals were hunted seems to play an important part. These critical points must be the focus of greater attention in the future supervision of human exposure to A. alata mesocercariae by consuming wild boar meat. The inspection for Alaria alata mesocercariae of this meat should become a standard procedure with the applicable and officially approved AMT, especially in districts with large water areas.

This thesis is an in-depth discussion and analysis of the alternative dispute resolution process of arbitration in the United States. It begins by providing a basic explanatory overview of arbitration clauses and the arbitration process. It then goes on to highlight the various benefits over traditional court litigation that arbitration has to offer. From there, the paper presents a detailed discussion of the many shortcomings of the arbitration process. It identifies the overall lack of procedural fairness that exists in arbitration today due to the fact that arbitration currently tends to favor businesses over consumers and workers during dispute settlements. The paper then identifies the various negative potential consequences that exist as a result of the unfair nature of arbitration today. This thesis concludes by presenting various ways that the arbitration process can be improved upon to make for a fairer, more neutral dispute resolution alternative.

Le commerce électronique B to C se popularise de plus en plus et le nombre de ses adeptes ne cesse de croître d'année en année. Ses avantages, pour les consommateurs, en termes de rapidité, de commodité et de proximité ne sont plus à prouver. Néanmoins, la particularité du medium utilisé pour effectuer des transactions en ligne et les spécificités de l'environnement électronique, notamment l'immatérialité, l'interactivité et l'internationalité influent considérablement sur la confiance des cyberconsommateurs en même temps qu'elles accroissent leur vulnérabilité, d'où la nécessité d'un cadre juridique adapté afin que l'essor du commerce électronique B to C ne néglige pas la protection des cyberconsommateurs. Conscients de cet impératif, les législateurs communautaire, français et tunisien, ont mis en place un certain nombre de mesures de nature à rassurer ces derniers et leur permettre de s'engager dans des transactions de commerce en ligne en toute confiance. Ces mesures sont de deux ordres : les unes sont destinées à assurer au cyberconsommateur une protection intrinsèque au processus de la transaction en ligne ; cette protection se manifeste en amont de la transaction, lors de la phase précontractuelle, mais également pendant la période contractuelle, c'est-à-dire au moment de la finalisation de la transaction en ligne et de son exécution. Les autres ont pour objectif de garantir au consommateur une protection extrinsèque au processus de la transaction du commerce électronique. Deux aspects sont, à cet égard, pris en compte : la protection des données à caractère personnel traitées dans le cadre d'une transaction en ligne et les aspects du droit international privé de la protection du cyberconsommateur. / B to C e-commerce is increasingly gaining popularity. The number of its followers has seen a drastic surge throughout the few recent years. Its advantages in terms of speed, convenience and proximity are not any more questionable by consumers. Nevertheless, the characteristic of this medium used to carry out online transactions as well as the specificities of the electronic environment - in particular the immateriality, the interactivity and internationality - influence considerably cyber-consumers confidence. Simultaneously, they increase their vulnerability. Thus, the need for an appropriate legal framework to regulate the rise of B to C e-commerce and protect cyber-consumers. Taking into account these requirement, community, French and Tunisian legislators set up a number of measures to reassure the latter and allow them to engage confidently in online commerce transactions. These measures have two targets: some of them were intended to grant cyber-consumers an intrinsic protection in the process of the online transaction. This protection is set to be an upstream transaction protection at the pre-contractual phase as well as during the contractual period; i.e. at the level of on line transaction finalization and execution. The others aim to guarantee the consumer an extrinsic protection throughout the process of e-commerce transaction. In this respect, two aspects are taken into account, namely: personal data processed during transactions and the aspects of private international law of cyber-consumer protection.

Legal Status of the Financial Arbiter in Comparison with Selected Regulatory and Control Institutions in the Czech Republic and EU The topic of my thesis is legal status of the Financial arbiter in the Czech Republic. It represent a specific institution for out-of-court settlement of financial disputes between providers of some financial services and their clients. The Financial arbiter does not substitute the role of courts; instead it operates alongside the judicial system and offers to the clients of financial institutions swift and free of charge alternative to the legal proceedings, which emphasizes reconciliation. In the opening chapter of this thesis I looked into the theoretical concept of this institution and characterized it as an administrative authority sui generis. In order to obtain better understanding of the institutional status of the Financial arbiter, I further compared the Financial arbiter with similar institutions in the Czech Republic and the EU. I consider the separation from the Czech National Bank and the creation of the Financial arbiter bureau, which is a government department, as a major change in the legal status of the Financial arbiter. The arbitration proceeding represents an alternative to the legal proceedings. It can be initiated only by a client`s complaint, for...

The aim of this diploma thesis was to identify and analyze the decision-making activities of the Financial Arbitrator as an out-of-court dispute resolution body for some of the consumer disputes in the area of financial services, both procedural and substantive points of view. The author discusses the importance and practical impacts of the decision-making activities of the Financial Arbitrator to the parties of the proceedings before the Financial Arbitrator taking into account recent legislative changes affecting this institution. At the same time, the author deals with some practical problems which the Financial Arbitrator faces by its decision making and discusses their solutions. Finally, the author examines and evaluates some of the decisions issued by the Financial Arbitrator in various areas of its competence. The actual text of this work is divided into five chapters, introduction and conclusion. In the first chapter the author briefly describes the origin and development of the institute of the Financial Arbitrator and its institutional framework as to emphasize the specifics of this institute, which is reflected in its decision-making and offers a view of foreign approaches in the creation of disputes dealing with an out-of-court resolution of disputes from financial services. In the...

Thesis deals with the position and proceedings of the Czech Trade Inspection (CTI). The introductory chapter discusses the theoretical and general bases associated with the role and activities of the CTI in public administration as a public authority, forms of administrative activities and administrative supervision. Afterwards, the work describes the history of consumer's protection legislation and freely moves in a special section dealing with on the above mentioned theoretical aspects in a practical context. First, it discusses the status of the CTI in public administration and organizational structure including the structure of the particular inspectorates and then powers and authority under applicable law. The following section is devoted to an inspection process systematically as the main activity of the CTI, including the description of the rights and duties of inspectors in its exercise. During the inspection inspectors determine the facts that are recorded in the inspection report, which serves as the main basis for eventual administrative proceedings. This section presents a number of my practical experiences, but also the decisions of administrative courts, which may provide some guidance on how to proceed when revising in ambiguous cases. Furthermore, specific remedies, including...

La protection du consommateur en droit international privé européen passe par les règles protectrices de conflit de lois et de conflit de juridictions spécialement conçues pour les contrats transfrontières de consommation. Ces règles contribuent au rééquilibrage du rapport contractuel de consommation transfrontière et font peser sur le professionnel la charge des coûts de l’internationalisation du contrat de consommation. Sous réserve de certaines améliorations qui pourraient être apportées, la méthode choisie par le droit international privé européen est globalement satisfaisante. En revanche, son champ d’application est trop restrictif. Avec le critère d’ « activité dirigée », le modèle européen est actuellement fondé sur la distinction entre les consommateurs passifs et actifs. Le bénéfice des règles protectrices est réservé aux premiers. Cette distinction ne doit pas conduire à l’absence de protection pour les seconds. Dans cette thèse, il est proposé d’introduire des règles protectrices au bénéfice des consommateurs actuellement exclus du régime protecteur. Cette protection ne doit pas passer par l’extension du champ d’application des règles protectrices existantes aux consommateurs actifs mais par l’établissement d’un second régime protecteur parallèle pour ces consommateurs, inspiré par l’idée de mieux encadrer l’autonomie de la volonté et d’atteindre un bon compromis entre la protection du consommateur et le respect des intérêts du professionnel. / Consumer protection in European private international law is carried out through protective choice-of-law and jurisdiction rules which are specially designed for cross-border consumer contracts. These rules help balancing the bargaining power and make the professional bear the internationalization cost of consumer contract. With some improvements which should be brought to the existing rules, the method used in European private international law in matters relating to consumer contracts is generally satisfactory. On the other hand, its scope is too narrow. With the criterion of "directed activity", the European model is based on the distinction between passive and active consumers. Only passive consumers are covered by the protective rules. This distinction must not lead to the lack of protection for active consumers. In this thesis, it suggests that European private international law provide protective rules for consumers currently not covered. However, the protection must not be carried out by extending the scope of existing protective rules to active consumers but by establishing a second set of protective rules inspired by a better regulation of freedom of contract and a good compromise between professional’s interests and consumer protection.