Head and neck injuries are common in contact sports. Proper function of the cervical spine sensorimotor system is important in limiting these injuries. Repetitive stress incurred during contact sport participation may negatively affect this system and increase injury risk. Currently, there is a paucity of research examining contact sport exposure and cervical spine sensorimotor function. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of contact sport participation on cervical sensorimotor function. The independent variables were group (rugby, non-contact), sex (male, female), and time (pre-season, post-season). The primary dependent variable was neck position sense error as measured by total neck reposition (TNRE) error and maximum neck reposition error (MaxNRE). Secondary dependent variables included neck disability index, signs and symptom (S/S) number, symptom severity, concussion history, cervical range of motion, and isometric neck strength. This prospective observational study included forty-nine participants (15 male rugby, 11 female rugby, 11 non-contact male control, 12 non-contact female control) from Temple University campus recreation club sport teams. Athletes participated in two testing sessions, one prior to the season (i.e., pre-season) and one following the season. Data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Independent-sample t-tests with Bonferroni corrections were used to assess statistically significant differences in dependent variables at pre-season between groups (Aim 1) and sex (Aim 2). Independent-samples t-tests with Bonferroni correction were also used to explore statistically significant differences in dependent variables change scores from pre-season to post-season between groups (Aim 1). Pearson correlations (r > .60) were used to assess potential covariates but none were identified. Pearson correlations were also used to evaluate the relationship between pre-season maximum and total neck reposition sense error and the following dependent variables: years of contact sport participation, concussion S/S number and severity score, global cervical range of motion and global cervical isometric strength (Aim 3). For Aim 1, between group differences were identified for global cervical isometric strength, t (1, 45) = 2.98, p = .005, and total joint reposition error t (1, 45) = 2.78, p = .008, only. There were no significant change score differences between groups across time. For Aim 2, sex differences were identified in years of contact sport exposure (p = .004), height (p < .001) and global isometric strength (p <.001), only. For Aim 3, preseason concussion S/S number and severity scores were significantly correlated (p < .05) with total joint reposition error (r = .352) and maximum joint reposition error (r = .476). The present study findings indicate a difference in cervical spine sensorimotor function between collegiate club rugby athletes and controls. Specifically, rugby athletes exhibited significantly greater neck reposition sense error than controls. Additionally, concussion S/S scores were related to reposition sense error. Differences in position sense error were not identified between males and females, however females did exhibit less neck strength mirroring previous reports. These findings suggest that exposure to contact sport-related impacts may lead to changes in cervical spine sensorimotor function. These changes are important as they could represent an increased risk of injury and can be modified proactively. A comprehensive cervical spine pre-season examination including concussion S/S and position sense assessments could identify individuals needing preventative intervention. Future research should explore the risk associated with these proprioceptive deficits and the benefits of proactive therapeutic intervention designed to mitigate sensorimotor deficits in contact sport athletes. / Kinesiology

Objective: Following a sport related concussion (SRC) visible symptoms generally dissipate in 7-10 days post-injury. However, little is known about the cumulative effects of SRCs both in terms of structural damage to the white matter of the brain and neurocognitive performance. To address this issue, the relationship between the number of SRCs (frequency), axonal white matter (WM) damage and neurocognitive performance was examined. There were three predictions. First, increases in SRC frequency will be associated with decreases in performance on neurocognitive tests. Second, the frequency of SRC will be associated with axonal injury measured three WM tracts: the corpus callosum, the fronto-occipital fasciculus and the inferior longitudinal fasciculus. Third, less accurate and slower performance on a response inhibition task (STOP-IT) will be associated with greater axonal injury. Methods: A cross-sectional correlational design was utilised. Participants were rugby players with a history of SRC, rugby players with no history of SRC and control athletes (N=40) who completed a neurocognitive test battery and had a DTI brain scan. The neurocognitive battery consisted of the following standardised tests: Speed and Capacity of Language Processing Test, CogState Electronic Battery, Stroop Colour and Word Test, Controlled Oral Word Association Test, the Trail Making Test and the experimental test STOP-IT Electronic Test. White matter axonal injury was measured by DTI using fractional anisotropy (FA) and mean diffusivity (MD) metrics. The DTI data was processed using FSL to extract FA and MD DTI metrics in three a-priori regions of interest. Results: Spearman’s correlation analyses did not find significant associations between SRC frequency and neurocognitive performance on the FAS (rs=0.053, 95% CI [-0.27, 0.36]), TMT-A (rs=0.058, 95% CI [-0.26, 0.37]), TMT-B (rs= -0.046, 95% CI [-0.27, 0.36]) and the Stroop Interference (rs= -0.25, 95% CI [-0.07, 0.52]). Similarly, no significant Spearman’s correlations were found between SRC frequency and the computerised neurocognitive tests STOP-IT-SSRT (rs= -0.04, 95% CI [-0.28, 0.35])), STOP-IT–Accuracy (rs= -0.05, 95% CI [-0.27, 0.36]), CogState Detection subtest (rs= -0.15, 95% CI [-0.17, 0.44]), CogState Identification subtest (rs= -0.065, 95% CI [-0.26, 0.37]), CogState One card learning subtest (rs= 0.24, 95% CI [-0.08, 0.52]) or the CogState One back task subtest (rs= 0.06, 95% CI [-0.26, 0.37]). In terms of the DTI data there were no significant associations between SRC frequency and axonal injury measured by FA values in the CC (rs= 0.005, 95% CI [-0.31, 0.32]), ILF (rs= 0.028, 95% CI [-0.29, 0.34]) or FOF (rs= -0.022, 95% CI [-0.30, 0.33]). The same was pattern was found for MD values in the CC (rs= 0.081, 95% CI [-0.24, 0.39]), ILF (rs= -0.16, 95% CI [-0.16, 0.45]) or FOF (rs= -0.15, 95% CI [-0.17, 0.44]) Finally, there were no significant Spearman’s correlations between axonal injury FA values and the STOP-IT SSRT in any of the ROIs: CC (rs= 0.005, 95% CI [-0.31, 0.32]), ILF (rs= 0.028, 95% CI [-0.29, 0.34]) or FOF (rs= -0.022, 95% CI [-0.30, 0.33]). Equally, there were no significant correlations between MD values STOP-IT SSRT in the CC (rs= -0.028, 95% CI [-0.29, 0.34]), ILF (rs= -0.16, 95% CI [-0.16, 0.45]) or FOF (rs= -0.15, 95% CI [-0.17, 0.44]). Likewise, there were no significant Spearman’s correlations between accuracy on the STOP-IT and FA values and in any of the ROIs: CC (rs= 0.19, 95% CI [-0.13, 0.48]), ILF (rs= -0.045, 95% CI [-0.27, 0.35]) and FOF (rs= -0.032, 95% CI [-0.29, 0.34]), or MD values in the CC (rs= -0.11, 95% CI [-0.21, 0.41]), ILF (rs= 0.017, 95% CI [-0.30, 0.33]) or FOF (rs= 0.082, 95% CI [-0.24, 0.39]). This study did not find support for the hypothesis that cumulative SRCs are associated with poorer performance on neurocognitive tests or with axonal injury as measured by FA and MD DTI metrics. Conclusion: The null findings suggest that there are no cumulative effects of SRCs. The current findings are inconsistent with previous cross-sectional research that indicates that there are long-term changes to diffusivity measures present after single SRCs as well as cumulative effects in contact sport athletes. Likewise they are at odds with evidence suggesting that after three SRCs neurocognitive performance can be affected. The study needs to be extended to include a larger sample to ensure the results are not due to low statistical power.

Using Title IX of the Educational Amendments of 1972 and a review of the history of sport in the United States, this thesis provides a critical feminist analysis of how the legal system perpetuates and justifies sport as a male domain. The gender hierarchy in sport continues to be supported through the interpretation of the law meant to rectify gender disparities. The analysis of legal records in this thesis demonstrates that cultural and social beliefs regarding women and sport are evident in the construction of the law and impacts court rulings. Title IX and its subsequent interpretations and regulations, specifically, the Contact Sports Exemption, are manipulated in an unconstitutional manner reinforcing the traditionally male dominated institution of sport. This thesis argues that despite the nondiscrimination intent and purpose of Title IX, false assumptions about gender are perpetuated within the law and make gender equality in sport difficult, if not impossible.

Thesis (M.A.(Clinical Psychology)) -- University of Limpopo, 2015. / The effect of Cumulative Mild Head Injury (CMHI) in contact sports, such as rugby, is seen increasingly at school level where more and more injuries are reported. Research on CMHI in contact sport is needed specifically amongst previously disadvantaged groups where little or no research has taken place. The research is thus intended to seek a better understanding of CMHI in the contact sport of rugby specifically amongst amateur players. A quantitative research approach was utilised with a quasi-experimental research design. A sample of 18 student rugby players and 18 volleyball (non-contact sport) controls was used. In terms of mean performances the tests did not reveal a consistent pattern of deficits which is typically associated with the effects of Cumulative Mild Head Injuries. There were significant results however, in terms of variability that suggests potential deficits in attention among the rugby group. The results are therefore indicative of a poorer overall cognitive profile for the rugby playing group. It is concluded that the increased variability may be displayed in individuals who suffer CMHI at an earlier age.

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There is now and may always be a difference of opinion on the advisability of contact sports for the younger and usually more immature boys. It is said by some that the many and varied experiences and attitudes gained through early participation in team contact sports greatly over-balances any detrimental effects which might occur. The other point of view expresses the opinion that anything which is gained at this younger age can and will be better accepted. when there is less chance or physical, mental, and social strain or damage. The age groups considered ln this study are usually exempted from the above discussion. High school boys, with some limitations, are felt to be mature enough to compete in these activities. However, the maturity of many ninth and tenth grade boys can be questioned. In any case, competitive athletics for all high school boys is a firm part of the school program and continuous effort should be made to improve the conditions which surround it. It was the purpose of this study to show the physical affects of the contact team sport of football on two classes of boys. The comparison was made between ninth and tenth grade boys and eleventh and twelfth grade boys, all of whose injuries were obtained during practice for or actual participation in interscholastic competition in high school football.

Introduktion: Sportrelaterade hjärnskakningar drabbar minst 1.6 till 3.8 miljoner idrottare varje år i USA. Idrottare aktiva inom olika kontaktidrotter har en relativ ökad risk att drabbas av hjärnskakningar. Ungdomar är särskilt känsliga för hjärnskakningar på grund av strukturella och anatomiska skillnader i hjärn- och kroppsutvecklingen, vilket kan leda till allvarligare skador. Låg nackstyrka har visat sig vara en bidragande faktor hos idrottare som drabbats av hjärnskakning. Syfte: Att undersöka vilka typer av nackträningsinterventioner som används och om de ökar nackstyrkan hos ungdomar inom kontaktidrotter. Metod: En strukturerad sökning gjordes i Pubmed, Web of Science, SportDiscus och Medline med hjälp av en PICO. P = Idrottande ungdomar inom kontaktidrotter, 12–19 år. I = Träning av nackmuskulaturen och dess effekt. C = Studier som jämför nackträning med kontrollgrupp utan nackträning. O = Ökad nackstyrka. Resultat: Databassökningen genererade 520 studier. Efter kontroll av titel, abstrakt och full genomgång av studier inkluderades fyra studier. Vid referenssökning hämtades två andra studier in som genomgick samma procedur. Samtliga inkluderade studier fann en ökning av nackstyrka efter intervention. Störst ökning i nackstyrka sågs där nackträningen implementerades i ett befintligt skadeförebyggande program. I fem av sex interventioner användes isometrisk träning för att öka nackstyrkan. Konklusion: Nackstyrka går att öka på relativ kort tid med få eller inga redskap. Det går inte att dra en slutsats kring vilken metod som är effektivast då metoderna varierar. Framtida forskning bör fokusera på fler deltagare och idrotter då befintlig forskning är begränsad. / Introduction: Sports-related concussions affect at least 1.6 to 3.8 million athletes each year in the United States. Athletes active in various contact sports have a relatively increased risk of concussion. Adolescents are particularly susceptible to concussions due to structural and anatomical differences in brain and body development, which can lead to more serious injuries. Low neck strength has been shown to be a contributing factor in athletes suffering from concussions. Aim: To investigate what types of neck training interventions are used and whether they increase neck strength among adolescents involved in contact sports. Method: A structured literature search was done in Pubmed, Web of Science, SportDiscus and Medline using a PICO. P = Adolescent athletes in contact sports, 12-19 years old. I = Training of the neck muscles and their effect. C = Studies that compare neck training with control group without neck training. O = Increased neck strength. Results: The database search generated 520 studies. After checking titles, abstract and full screening of studies, four was included. During reference search, two other studies were found and underwent the same procedure. All included studies found an increase in neck strength after intervention. The largest increase in neck strength was seen where neck training was implemented in an already existing injury prevention program. In five of the six interventions, isometric training was used to increase neck strength. Conclusion: Neck strength can be increased in a relatively short time with few or no tools. It is not possible to draw a conclusion about which method is the most effective one, as the methods vary. Future research should focus on more participants and sports as existing research is limited.

The study of high-contact sport athletes and the implications of repetitive head injury (RHI) associated with these sports has been at the forefront of traumatic brain injury (TBI) research for the last decade. The present study represents a quasi-experimental study exploring whether an experimental group (N=39) consisting of amateur and professional competitive mixed martial arts (MMA) athletes differ in three operations of executive functioning ability (shifting, updating and inhibition) when compared to a control group (N=44) of non-contact sports athletes. Participants completed a self-report measure of executive functioning ability as well as six computerized executive function (EF) tasks. The results from the study demonstrated no statistically significant differences between the experimental group and the control group on the performance of each executive functioning operation. A moderate negative correlation was found between the number of years competing and performance on shifting and updating in the experimental group. A moderate negative correlation between the number of reported competitive fights and all three EF operations within the experimental group was also reported. The results also showed a statistically significant difference in the beliefs of executive functioning abilities between the experimental group and the control group.  The experimental group reported a higher level of belief in poorer executive functioning ability than that of the control group. These findings provide evidence that while competing in MMA does have implications on executive functioning abilities, they are not in line with previous research done on other high-contact sports athletes. / Att studera hur utövare av fullkontaktsporter påverkas av upprepade huvudskador (RHI), associerat med utövandet av sporten, har varit ett fokusområde för forskningsfältet inom traumatiska huvudskador (TBI). Denna uppsats utgör en kvasi-experimentell studie som undersöker huruvida en experimentell grupp (N=39) bestående av amatörer och professionella ’mixed martial arts’ (MMA)- atleter skiljer sig i sin förmåga inom tre typer av exekutiva funktioner (skiftning, uppdatering och inhibition) jämfört med en kontrollgrupp (N=44) som inte utövar fullkontaktsport. Deltagarna fick först fylla i ett formulär där de skattade sin egen förmåga inom exekutiva funktioner, varpå de slutförde sex digitala test som gav ett mått på deras exekutiva funktioner. Studien påvisade ingen signifikant skillnad mellan de två grupperna för någon av de testade exekutiva förmågorna. Däremot fann studien en moderat negativ korrelation mellan antal år av tävlan och prestation på skifte och uppdatering, liksom en moderat negativ korrelation mellan antal tävlingstillfällen och de tre måtten på exekutiva funktioner, för den experimentella gruppen. Resultaten visade även en signifikant skillnad i självskattningen av exekutiv förmåga, mellan den experimentella gruppen och kontrollgruppen där experimentgruppen rapporterade sämre upplevda exekutiva förmågor, jämfört med kontrollgruppen. Dessa fynd indikerar att tävlan inom MMA har implikationer för exekutiva förmågor, även om de inte är i linje med tidigare forskning gjord på utövare av andra fullkontaktsporter.

Title: Evaluation of postural stability in subjects engaged in combatand non-contact sports Objectives: The aim of this diploma thesis is to investigate the influence of contact itself during sport activities on postural stability of athletes. Methods: Into this quasi-experiment study there were picked 16 atheletes (n=16) in age from 22 to 35 years. Selected individuals were divided into two groups of eight according to their sporting activity (combat sports, baseball. In the mentioned individuals the postural stability was measured. To measure postural stability the computerized dynamic posturography of EquiTest Smart System from Neurocom was used. Measured data were processed using Neurocom Balance Manager Software. For the analysis of the data following statistical methods - paired t-test, Mann-Whitney test and rate of clinical signifikance (Cohen's d) were used. Results: The results indicate that individuals performing in combat sports were reaching higher mean scores in Limits of Stability than baseball players. This fact has been statistically and clinically proven. On the other hand baseball players reached higher mean Equilibrium Scores in Sensory organization test, however this fact has not been statistically nor clinically proven. No significant differences between the groups in motor...