Selon la théorie de la double hérédité, les processus de transmission sociale des connaissances permettraient aux cultures humaines d'évoluer de manière darwinienne. On parvient à cette conclusion en inférant que, étant donné qu'une analogie profonde peut être établie entre les mécanismes de transmission génétique et ceux de transmission sociale, on devrait non seulement concevoir que les processus cognitifs d'apprentissage social constituent bel et bien un système d'hérédité distinct du système d'hérédité génétique, mais qu’il est aussi légitime, sur la base de cette même analogie, de transférer les concepts explicatifs et outils formels issus de la biologie évolutionnaire et de les adapter à l'étude des cultures humaines en vue de constituer une théorie darwinienne de l'évolution culturelle. Cette analogie de l’hérédité culturelle fait depuis longtemps l'objet de controverses tant au sein de la littérature scientifique que dans les discussions philosophiques. On ne semble pas s'entendre sur la nature même de cette analogie ni non plus sur la force de justification épistémique qu'une telle analogie donnerait à la mise en place d'une théorie darwinienne de l'évolution culturelle. Néanmoins, à travers plus de quarante années de débats, la structure de cette analogie n'a jamais été examinée en détail et on a rarement examiné l'épistémologie des inférences par analogie dans un tel contexte. L'objectif principal de la présente thèse consistera à offrir une première analyse systématique de la nature, de la structure, de la fonction et de la justification épistémique de l'analogie de l'hérédité culturelle, fondement conceptuel de la théorie de la double hérédité. En portant ici une attention particulière à la structure logique de cette analogie, on pourra constater l'ampleur de sa complexité, complexité passant souvent inaperçue dans les critiques de la théorie de la double hérédité. On défendra ici la thèse selon laquelle l'analogie de l'hérédité culturelle est en fait composée de deux analogies constitutives qui, conjointement, ouvrent la voie à la mise en place et à l’organisation d’un programme de recherche visant à mettre au point une théorie darwinienne de l’évolution culturelle. / According to the dual-inheritance theory, processes of social transmission of ideas should allow human cultures to evolve in a Darwinian fashion. This conclusion is obtained by an explanatory inference according to which a profound analogy can be established between the cognitive processes of social learning and those of genetic transmission mechanisms. Not only should we understand social learning as a genuine cultural inheritance system, distinct although complementary to the genetic inheritance system, but, on the basis of the very same analogy, it would also be legitimate to transfer and adapt the theoretical concepts, explanatory formats and formal tools of evolutionary biology to the study of cultural dynamics so as to constitute a Darwinian theory of cultural evolution. The cultural inheritance analogy has been controversial since it was first suggested. A lack of consensus amongst scientists and philosophers about the proper meaning and epistemic reach of such an analogy has impeded the acceptance that human cultures might evolve. Nonetheless, through the forty years of controversy, the structure of the cultural inheritance analogy has never been systematically scrutinized and its relevance as an epistemic foundation for theory construction seldom examined. The main objective of this dissertation is to offer a first systematic analysis of the nature, structure, function and epistemic reach of the cultural inheritance analogy as the conceptual foundation of the dual-inheritance theory. By insisting on its logical structure, it is argued here that it is a complex analogy, the complexity of which is often misunderstood by the criticisms levelled against the dual-inheritance theory. It is argued here that the cultural inheritance analogy is in fact composed of two constitutive analogies that conjointly justify and organize a Darwinian research program of cultural evolution.

In einem Bienenkorb voll Antworten für Ordnung zu sorgen, so ließe sich mit Montaigne die Aufgabe der vorliegenden Arbeit beschreiben. Um ein Integral zu schaffen, wird Bernard Mandeville als Ordnungstheoretiker betrachtet. In dieser Form sollen sowohl die funktionellen als auch die normativen Aspekte seines politischen Denkens erfasst werden. In historischer Perspektive soll es so ermöglicht werden, Mandeville in einem weit gefassten, ideengeschichtlichen Kontext zu positionieren. In systematischer Hinsicht wiederum sollen stilistische, methodische und inhaltliche Untersuchungen koordiniert werden, um anthropologische, ökonomische, soziologische, politische und ethische Momente in ihrem Nexus zu erfassen. Sofern man (1) die anthropologischen Fundamente fokussiert, wird die Bedingtheit ökonomischer und rechtsstaatlicher Ordnungsmomente hinsichtlich der Entstehung wie dem Fortbestand der politischen Ordnung aufgezeigt. Dabei wird (2) Mandevilles Konzeption einer spontanen Ordnung den Anforderungen einer zunehmend plural erfahrenen und global verwobenen Welt in funktionaler Hinsicht gerecht. Zugleich stellt (3) sein Modell einer Ordnung der Diversität eine Transformationsleistung dar, welche dem Prinzip der Individualität faktisch eine zentrale Position im politisch-normativen Diskurs sichert. Wird darüber hinaus (4) das Konzept der Öffentlichkeit in Betracht gezogen, so das Argument der vorliegenden Arbeit, kann dem lebendigen Individuum mit Mandeville eine moralische Dimension in der belebten Welt eröffnet werden. / To establish order in a beehive full of answers, could be a reformulation of the task within the research on hand. To achieve an integral, Bernard Mandeville will be perceived as an order theorist. His political thinking will be dimensioned in terms of this integral. This will include functional as well as normative aspects. Historically, the study will seek to site Mandeville in a broad context that the History of Ideas has instituted. Systematically, it will coordinate stylistic, methodical, and topical investigations. Thus the nexus of anthropological, economic, sociological, political, and ethical elements within his philosophical thinking is exerted. If (1) the anthropological fundaments are focussed, the interdependency of economic and constitutional momenta is depicted. This will prove substantial for the evolution as well as the continuance of the political order. Mandevilles concept of (2) spontaneous order meets the functional claims arising in a pluralistic and globally experienced world. His shaping of (3) an order based on diversity achieves a transformation that may bring the principle of individuality to bear. This will hold up in the political as well as in the general normative discourse. Furthermore, (4) the concept of the public sphere is taken in account. The research argues that Mandeville hereby opens up a moral vista for human beings as living creatures in an animated world.

Zweifellos beansprucht Schiller wie kaum ein anderer Dichter, die Freiheit des Menschen zur Grundlage seines philosophischen Denkens und künstlerischen Schaffens gemacht zu haben. Vorliegende Studie, die Schillers Jugendschriften zentral thematisiert, eröffnet den Blick auf die ideengeschichtliche Kontinuität dieses Denkens, das seinen Ursprung in der Stuttgarter Akademiezeit hat. Es wird also die innere Einheit von Schillers Denken betont, die jedoch nicht in der Kant-Lektüre, sondern in der frühen anthropologischen Prägung gesehen wird. Das verwendete quellenuntersuchende Vorgehen ermöglicht es, Schillers Akademieschriften in Verbindung mit der intellektuellen und szientifischen Gesamtlage der Zeit detailliert zu analysieren und zu interpretieren. Was dabei sichtbar wird, ist ein Naturbegriff, mit dem die lebendige Ganzheit der Natur als universeller Wirkungszusammenhang einzusehen versucht wird und der Akzent auf der Selbstbewegtheit der Natur liegt. Die Natur wird als etwas Produktives, sich Selbstorganisierendes, sich Selbstvollendendes begriffen. Dieser Naturbegriff liegt dem anthropologischen Selbstverständnis zugrunde. Frühzeitig gibt Schiller diesem anthropologischen Konzept eine geschichts- und moralphilosophische Dimension. / Undisputed, Schiller demands- as hardly any other poet – that he had made freedom of mankind to the foundation of his philosophical thoughts and artificial creation. This essay on hand has Schiller’ leaflet of his youth as subject and opens a view to the variety of ideas of the continuity of these thoughts which has its origin in the time at the academy in Stuttgart. The inner unit is marked which will not be seen in Kant’s readings , but also in the early anthropological coining. The used source- survey gives a chance to analyse and interpret Schiller’ leaflets in an association with the intellectual and scientific situation of this time in detail. It becomes clear that the expression of nature is seen as the living holistic of the nature which has a relationship between effects and that the accent lies on the automatically moving of the nature. The nature is made clear as something automatically organising and completed and something productive. This expression of nature is the basic of the anthropological comprehension. Premature, Schiller gives this anthropological draft a historical moral standard dimension.

Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit dem Verhältnis zwischen Natur und Kultur in einer evolutionstheoretischen Perspektive. Mein theoretischer Ausgangspunkt ist ein sozial-ökologisches Rahmenkonzept, das physische Interaktionen zwischen Gesellschaften und ihrer natürlichen Umwelt in den Mittelpunkt stellt. Der Anspruch dieser sozial-ökologischen Sichtweise ist es, Gesellschaft-Natur-Interaktionen zu beschreiben, ohne in naturalistische oder kulturalistische Reduktionen zu verfallen. Dieser Ansatz muss daher davon ausgehen, dass "Gesellschaft" aus dem Zusammenwirken von symbolischen oder kulturellen Systemen und materiellen Elementen, zum Beispiel der menschlichen Bevölkerung, verstanden werden soll. Damit beschreitet diese Arbeit einen Weg, der die "zwei Kulturen", wie Snow es in seinem berühmten Aufsatz ausgedrückt hat, also die sozial- und geisteswissenschaftliche Kultur auf der einen Seite und die naturwissenschaftliche Kultur auf der anderen Seite, überbrücken will. Zunächst stelle ich ein so positioniertes sozial-ökologisches Rahmenkonzept vor. Ausgehend von drei möglichen sozial-ökologischen Konzepten, der humanökologischen Position Stephen Boydens, der kulutranthropologischen Theorie Maurice Godeliers und des umwelthistorischen Modells von Rolf Peter Sieferle, erarbeite ich ein epistemologisches Gesamtmodell der Gesellschaft-Natur Interaktionen, das sowohl mit wichtigen kultur- und sozialwissenschaftlichen Konzepten konsistent ist, als auch kompatibel mit einer naturwissenschaftlichen Betrachtungsweise. Daran anschließend unterziehe ich einige der vorgestellten Thesen, einer ersten empirischen Überprüfung. Das zweijährige Einschlussexperiment "Biosphäre 2" dient dabei gewissermaßen als sozial-ökologischer Modellfall. Kapitel 3 führt die Theoriediskussion weiter, jetzt jedoch mit einem anderen Fokus. Nicht mehr die Interaktion zwischen Gesellschaft und ihrer natürlichen Umwelt steht im Mittelpunkt der Überlegungen, sondern Gesellschaft und Kultur selbst. Die Frage, wie nützlich hier der Systembegriff sein kann, wird in konzeptueller und terminologischer Hinsicht diskutiert, ebenso wie die Positionierung einer solchen Theorie gegenüber verschiedenen kulturanthropologischen und soziologischen Theorien. Aufbauend darauf versuche ich eine Theorie der "kulturellen Evolution" zu entwickeln. Leitfragen dabei sind: Was ist Evolution? Was evolviert? Unter welchen Bedingungen kann man von kultureller Evolution sprechen? Schließlich werden aus den erarbeiteten theoretischen Positionen Schlussfolgerungen für eine mögliche Theorie der Gesellschaft-Natur Koevolution gezogen, Wege einer empirischen Umsetzung werden skizziert, und der Versuch unternommen, resümierend die Frage nach den Bedingungen der Möglichkeit nachhaltiger Entwicklung neu zu stellen. / This thesis deals with the interrelations between nature and culture from the perspective of evolutionary theory. The theoretical starting point is an overall social-ecological model that focuses on the physical interactions between societies and their natural environments. This social-ecological approach aims to describe society-nature interactions without reverting to "naturalistic" or "culturalistic" reductions. Society is understood here to be a hybrid comprising symbolic as well as material elements. Thus, the approach proposed here seeks to bridge what Snow in his well-known book termed the "two cultures," namely the culture of the sciences and culture of the humanities. The first chapter of this thesis proposes an overall social-ecological framework that is positioned in these terms. Beginning with a description of three socio-ecological models, as proposed by scientists from three different disciplines -- Stephen Boyden a human ecologist, Maurice Godelier, a cultural anthropologist, and Rolf Peter Sieferle, an environmental historian -- I proceed to develop my own epistemological model of society-nature interactions that is both consistent with central concepts of the social sciences and compatible with a natural sciences perspective. Some of the hypotheses elaborated upon in the first chapter are then exposed to empirical testing, whereby the famous two-year enclosure experiment "Biosphere 2" serves as a social-ecological case study. The third chapter resumes the theoretical discussion, focusing however on the concepts themselves of society and culture. The question of whether a systems approach is useful for and compatible with a socio-ecological model is discussed from a conceptual as well as a terminological point of view, as is the position of such a theory with regard to cultural-anthropological and sociological theories. It is concluded that a systems model is useful and necessary in a limited sense, yet the leading difference/s between nature and culture is/are reconfirmed. The fourth chapter strives to develop a theory of cultural evolution, based upon the positions elaborated thus far and beginning with a classification and discussion of various attempts to adapt evolutionary thinking to society or culture. Key questions here include: What is evolution? What evolves? When is it possible to speak of cultural evolution? My work leads me to suggest the use of an abstract version of the Darwinian algorithm in combination with systems theory to develop a concept of cultural evolution. Finally, I draw conclusions regarding a possible theory of society-nature co-evolution. The potential for empirical realisation is explored and an attempt is made in summing up to define the conditions necessary for a transition towards sustainable development.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-29T13:17:51Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Henrique Valle Belo Ribeiro Angelo.pdf: 1411502 bytes, checksum: f3f0a741a628ecacfc95ad413171e9a2 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-01-24 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Some metacontingency experiments have been working with intermittent cultural consequences in analogue ways to operant ratio schedules. The transition from lower ratio to higher ratio sometimes were followed by a slight instability in the previous selected cultural practice. Only one experiment showed a ratio strain from continuous production of cultural consequence to an analogue of VR2. In all experiments, the raise in ratio was gradual and only ratios 2 and 3 were used. To access some variables that can contribute to the ratio strain, two experiments were conducted. Subjects had the task to insert numbers in a computer game gaining both individual and/or cultural consequences. The elder subjects were substituted for new ones during all experiments. In both experiments, after a period of selection, the ratio for cultural consequence liberation was increased to 2, than, after a stability criterion has been achieved, the ratio was abruptly increased to 10. In the first experiment there was no changes in the aggregate production when the ratio was raised and then the metacontingency was discontinued (analogue of operant extinction). The pattern of production continued for a long period of extinction until the pattern dismisses. The second experiment showed a ratio strain when the ratio was raised from 2 to 10. The results were discussed in terms of different forms of cultural transmission, the format of rules generated by the subjects and the contact with the cultural consequence / Alguns experimentos sobre metacontingências têm trabalhado com consequências culturais intermitentes de formas análogas a esquemas operantes de razão. A transição de razões mais baixas para razões mais altas algumas vezes foram seguidas por uma leve instabilidade na prática cultural previamente selecionada. Somente um experimento mostrou uma distensão da razão na mudança de produção contínua da consequência cultural para um análogo de VR2. Em todos os experimento, o aumento na razão foi gradual e somente as razões 2 e 3 foram usadas. Para avaliar algumas variáveis que podem contribuir para a distensão da razão, dois experimentos foram conduzidos. Os participantes tinham a tarefa de inserir números em um jogo de computador liberando tanto consequências individuais quanto culturais. Os participantes mais antigos foram substituídos por novos durante todos os experimentos. Em ambos os experimentos, depois de um período de seleção, a razão para a liberação da consequência cultural foi aumentada para 2, então, depois de um critério de estabilidade ser atingido, a razão foi abruptamente aumentada para 10. No primeiro experimento não houve mudanças na produção agregada quando a razão foi aumentada e a metacontingência foi então descontinuada (análogo de extinção operante). O padrão de produção contínua por um longo período de extinção até que o padrão deixou de ocorrer. O segundo experimento mostrou uma distensão na razão quando a razão foi aumentada de 2 para 10. Os resultados foram discutidos em termos de diferentes formas de transmissão cultural, o formato das regras geradas pelos participantes e o contato com a consequência cultural

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-29T13:18:18Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Claudia Teixeira Gadelha.pdf: 828588 bytes, checksum: c7774d0f3c96a9aa1ecd5702f66a0b23 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-04-19 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Human behavior is accounted by three levels of variations and selection: filogeny, ontogeny and cultural. Metacontingency is a concept that deals with cultural level phenomena. It postules, in analogy with operant behavior, that interlocking behavioral contingencies and their aggregate product are selected by its consequences. This research has been driven by the following inquiry: Will IBCs and aggregate products of different inicial probability be selected by differential magnitudes of cultural consequences?. In a multiple trials procedure, two undergraduate students would work together, on a computer task (even though each one worked on a different computer) and could interact freely. When the stability criteria was attained, one of the participants would be replaced by another. In each trial, 4 numbers would appear on each computer screen. The participants task consisted in typing in another 4 numbers. When all the sums of both numbers (given by the computer and typed by the participant) resulted in odd numbers, points were earned by the participant. During the trials, the sum of the numbers typed in by the participant would appear in a box. Different relations between the sum of the numbers typed in by each participant would lead to different consequences. Contingencies less and less probable would lead to bigger and bigger magnitude of consequences. Therefore, when: a) the sum of the numbers typed in by one participant was bigger than the sum of the other, each participant would earn 100 bonus; b) the sum of the numbers typed in by one participant was twice as large as the sum of the other participant, then each would earn 200 bonus; and c) the sum of the numbers typed in by one participant was equivalent to the other one s squared, then each would earn 300 bonus. The first experiment was composed of 14 generations. Two non-naïve participants were brought into the experimental session to make sure that all three aggregate products would occur. All three types of aggregate products were selected, one after the other. The second experiment was composed of an all-naïve 22 generations. The two first aggregate products were selected simultaneously, after 7 generations. However, variations in the main aggregate product proceded in the following generations. The results of both experiments indicated selections of/throughout metacontingencies / O comportamento humano é explicado por três níveis de variação e seleção: filogenético, ontogenético e cultural. O conceito de metacontingências diz respeito a fenômenos do nível cultural e supõe que, de maneira análoga ao comportamento operante, contingências comportamentais entrelaçadas e seus produtos agregados são selecionados por conseqüências. O problema que dirigiu o presente estudo foi se conseqüências culturais de diferentes magnitudes poderiam selecionar contingências comportamentais entrelaçadas tais que produtos agregados de diferentes complexidades e probabilidades iniciais fossem selecionados. Dois participantes interagiam entre si para trabalhavam cada um em um computador em uma mesma sala, na qual podiam interagir livremente. Os participantes eram substituídos um a um quando atendiam a critérios de estabilidade de desempenhos previamente estabelecidos. Na tela dos computadores apareciam em cada tentativa, para cada participante, 4 números. A tarefa dos participantes consistia em inserir outros 4 números. As somas dos números que se dispunham em 4 colunas (cada uma com a combinação dos números inseridos pelo computador e pelo participante) levavam à produção de pontos caso resultassem em somas impares. As somas de todos os 4 números inseridos por cada participante apareciam na tela concomitante ao inserir dos números. Diferentes relações entre as somas dos dois participantes eram consequenciadas diferencialmente. Contingências sucessivamente mais estritas levavam a conseqüências de maior magnitude. Assim, quando: a) soma dos números inseridos por um participante era maior que a soma dos números inseridos pelo outro, cada participante recebia 100 bônus; b) Se a soma dos números inseridos por um participante fosse o dobro do outro, cada participante recebia 200 bônus e; se c) a soma de um fosse o quadrado da soma do outro, cada participante recebia 300 bônus. O primeiro experimento foi conduzido com 14 gerações compostas de estudantes universitários. Dois confederados (participantes que conheciam as contingências) foram inseridos para assegurar a ocorrência dos três produtos agregados. Os três tipos de produtos agregados foram selecionados, um após o outro. O segundo experimento contou com 22 gerações de participantes, sem a inserção de confederados. Os dois primeiros produtos agregados foram selecionados simultaneamente, após 7 gerações. Entretanto, nas gerações seguintes houve variação com relação ao produto agregado predominante. Ambos os experimentos tiveram resultados que indicaram a seleção de/por metacontingências

Em uma metacontingência, respostas de dois ou mais indivíduos interagindo (denominadas um culturante) produzem estímulos (denominados de consequências culturais) capazes de afetar a recorrências daquelas respostas. Resultados de experimentos sobre metacontingência têm sido tratados como demonstrações de um tipo de seleção cultural. Além de sugerir a importância de interações verbais entre participantes, alguns desses experimentos têm empregado tarefas baseadas no dilema do prisioneiro repetido (iterated prisoners dilemma, IPD) interpretando-o, porém, como a programação apenas de contingências operantes. O Experimento 1 avaliou se um IPD com mais de 200 tentativas produziria escolhas cooperativas simultâneas de modo fidedigno e se a interação verbal entre participantes aumentaria a cooperação. 4 quartetos de universitários utilizaram 4 computadores conectados em rede (sem contato visual) e foram expostos a condições com ou sem permissão para usar uma sala de bate-papo pelo computador (chat) em um delineamento de linhas de base múltiplas entre quartetos. Os resultados demonstraram claramente que escolhas cooperativas unânimes podem ocorrer fidedignamente em um IPD e que a interação verbal entre participantes aumenta rapidamente tais escolhas. Esses resultados destacam a semelhança entre estudos sobre IPD e sobre metacontingências, nos quais são programadas consequências para comportamentos inter-relacionados de vários indivíduos. No Experimento 2, uma consequência cultural foi sobreposta às consequências já programadas pelo IPD: os quartetos podiam produzir pontos iguais para todos os participantes (feedback do mercado) contingentes a diferentes números de escolhas cooperativas. Como no Experimento 1, condições nas quais o uso do chat eram ou não permitidos foram arranjadas em um delineamento de linhas de base múltiplas entre quartetos. A interação verbal promoveu rápida e marcadamente a seleção cultural pelo feedback do mercado. Um quarteto apresentou algum controle dos culturantes pelo feedback do mercado antes das interações verbais, mas após o uso do chat a produção das consequências culturais aumentou substancialmente. O Experimento 3 replicou o Experimento 2 apresentando o feedback do mercado da mesma forma que os pontos do IPD, i.e., sem diversos estímulos verbais que sugerem a sua produção pelo quarteto como um todo. A interação verbal promoveu ao menos algum controle das escolhas pelo feedback do mercado em 2 dos 3 quartetos, sugerindo que a forma de apresentação da consequência cultural é irrelevante para os efeitos de uma consequência cultural. Os resultados dos 3 experimentos destacam a importância da interação verbal para a seleção cultural. Além disso, sugerem que um IPD programa uma situação análoga à programada em estudos sobre metacontingência, esclarecendo as diferenças entre os procedimentos empregados no estudo do IPD e de metacontingências e permitindo que avanços em uma área possam ser aproveitados pela outra / In a metacontingency, responses of two or more interacting individuals (a culturant) produce stimuli (called cultural consequences) that affect the recurrence of those responses. Results of metacontingency experiments are said to demonstrate a kind of cultural selection. Besides suggesting the importance of verbal interactions between participants, some of these experiments have used tasks based on the iterated prisoner\'s dilemma (IPD) interpreting it, however, as programming only operant contingencies. Experiment 1 examined whether an IPD with 200-plus trials would produce simultaneous cooperative choices reliably and whether verbal interaction between participants would increase cooperation. 4 quartets of undergraduate and graduate students used 4 networked computers (without visual contact), and were exposed to conditions with or without permission to use the computer chat room in a multiple baseline design between quartets. Results clearly demonstrate that unanimous cooperative choices can occur reliably in an IPD, and that verbal interaction between participants rapidly increases such choices. These results highlight the similarity between IPD and metacontingencies studies, both of which program consequences for inter-related behaviors of many individuals. In Experiment 2, a cultural consequence was superimposed on the consequences already programmed by the IPD: quartets could produce equal points for all participants (market feedback) contingent on different numbers of cooperative choices. As in Experiment 1, we arranged conditions in which chat use were or not allowed in a multiple baseline design between quartets. Verbal interaction quickly and markedly promoted cultural selection by the market feedback. One quartet presented some control of culturants by the market feedback before verbal interactions, but production of cultural consequences increased substantially after using the chat. Experiment 3 replicated Experiment 2 presenting the market feedback the same way that the IPD points, i.e., without several verbal stimuli that suggest its production by the quartet as a whole. Verbal interaction promoted at least some control of the choices by the market feedback in 2 of the 3 quartets, suggesting that the form of cultural consequence presentation is irrelevant for the effects of a cultural consequence. The results of the three experiments highlight the importance of verbal interaction for cultural selection. Furthermore, they suggest that an IPD program a situation analogous to the one employed in metacontingency studies, clarifying differences between procedures used in the study of IPD and of metacontingencies, and allowing advances in one area be employed by another

Em uma metacontingência, respostas de dois ou mais indivíduos interagindo (denominadas um culturante) produzem estímulos (denominados de consequências culturais) capazes de afetar a recorrências daquelas respostas. Resultados de experimentos sobre metacontingência têm sido tratados como demonstrações de um tipo de seleção cultural. Além de sugerir a importância de interações verbais entre participantes, alguns desses experimentos têm empregado tarefas baseadas no dilema do prisioneiro repetido (iterated prisoners dilemma, IPD) interpretando-o, porém, como a programação apenas de contingências operantes. O Experimento 1 avaliou se um IPD com mais de 200 tentativas produziria escolhas cooperativas simultâneas de modo fidedigno e se a interação verbal entre participantes aumentaria a cooperação. 4 quartetos de universitários utilizaram 4 computadores conectados em rede (sem contato visual) e foram expostos a condições com ou sem permissão para usar uma sala de bate-papo pelo computador (chat) em um delineamento de linhas de base múltiplas entre quartetos. Os resultados demonstraram claramente que escolhas cooperativas unânimes podem ocorrer fidedignamente em um IPD e que a interação verbal entre participantes aumenta rapidamente tais escolhas. Esses resultados destacam a semelhança entre estudos sobre IPD e sobre metacontingências, nos quais são programadas consequências para comportamentos inter-relacionados de vários indivíduos. No Experimento 2, uma consequência cultural foi sobreposta às consequências já programadas pelo IPD: os quartetos podiam produzir pontos iguais para todos os participantes (feedback do mercado) contingentes a diferentes números de escolhas cooperativas. Como no Experimento 1, condições nas quais o uso do chat eram ou não permitidos foram arranjadas em um delineamento de linhas de base múltiplas entre quartetos. A interação verbal promoveu rápida e marcadamente a seleção cultural pelo feedback do mercado. Um quarteto apresentou algum controle dos culturantes pelo feedback do mercado antes das interações verbais, mas após o uso do chat a produção das consequências culturais aumentou substancialmente. O Experimento 3 replicou o Experimento 2 apresentando o feedback do mercado da mesma forma que os pontos do IPD, i.e., sem diversos estímulos verbais que sugerem a sua produção pelo quarteto como um todo. A interação verbal promoveu ao menos algum controle das escolhas pelo feedback do mercado em 2 dos 3 quartetos, sugerindo que a forma de apresentação da consequência cultural é irrelevante para os efeitos de uma consequência cultural. Os resultados dos 3 experimentos destacam a importância da interação verbal para a seleção cultural. Além disso, sugerem que um IPD programa uma situação análoga à programada em estudos sobre metacontingência, esclarecendo as diferenças entre os procedimentos empregados no estudo do IPD e de metacontingências e permitindo que avanços em uma área possam ser aproveitados pela outra / In a metacontingency, responses of two or more interacting individuals (a culturant) produce stimuli (called cultural consequences) that affect the recurrence of those responses. Results of metacontingency experiments are said to demonstrate a kind of cultural selection. Besides suggesting the importance of verbal interactions between participants, some of these experiments have used tasks based on the iterated prisoner\'s dilemma (IPD) interpreting it, however, as programming only operant contingencies. Experiment 1 examined whether an IPD with 200-plus trials would produce simultaneous cooperative choices reliably and whether verbal interaction between participants would increase cooperation. 4 quartets of undergraduate and graduate students used 4 networked computers (without visual contact), and were exposed to conditions with or without permission to use the computer chat room in a multiple baseline design between quartets. Results clearly demonstrate that unanimous cooperative choices can occur reliably in an IPD, and that verbal interaction between participants rapidly increases such choices. These results highlight the similarity between IPD and metacontingencies studies, both of which program consequences for inter-related behaviors of many individuals. In Experiment 2, a cultural consequence was superimposed on the consequences already programmed by the IPD: quartets could produce equal points for all participants (market feedback) contingent on different numbers of cooperative choices. As in Experiment 1, we arranged conditions in which chat use were or not allowed in a multiple baseline design between quartets. Verbal interaction quickly and markedly promoted cultural selection by the market feedback. One quartet presented some control of culturants by the market feedback before verbal interactions, but production of cultural consequences increased substantially after using the chat. Experiment 3 replicated Experiment 2 presenting the market feedback the same way that the IPD points, i.e., without several verbal stimuli that suggest its production by the quartet as a whole. Verbal interaction promoted at least some control of the choices by the market feedback in 2 of the 3 quartets, suggesting that the form of cultural consequence presentation is irrelevant for the effects of a cultural consequence. The results of the three experiments highlight the importance of verbal interaction for cultural selection. Furthermore, they suggest that an IPD program a situation analogous to the one employed in metacontingency studies, clarifying differences between procedures used in the study of IPD and of metacontingencies, and allowing advances in one area be employed by another

This MA thesis scrutinizes metaphors used by the late medieval English in order to explore the cultural response to climate anomalies of varying severity prefacing the Little Ice Age. The thesis indicates that changes in these cultural expressions marked a transformation in late medieval English writers' conceptions of the natural world and their relationship to it. The central hypothesis is that repeated, long-term unreliable and uncertain weather conditions, and the resulting material insecurities and losses, stimulated a fundamental cultural response which reconfigured the metaphors used for the natural world. Although the representation of nature is inescapably an act of imagination, metaphors and metonymies for nature will be identified in the medieval creative literature, as well as the proto-scientific study of weather, and, in the context of the socioeconomic metabolism model, be brought under the light of conceptual metaphor analysis for elucidation.

This MA thesis scrutinizes metaphors used by the late medieval English in order to explore the cultural response to climate anomalies of varying severity prefacing the Little Ice Age. The thesis indicates that changes in these cultural expressions marked a transformation in late medieval English writers' conceptions of the natural world and their relationship to it. The central hypothesis is that repeated, long-term unreliable and uncertain weather conditions, and the resulting material insecurities and losses, stimulated a fundamental cultural response which reconfigured the metaphors used for the natural world. Although the representation of nature is inescapably an act of imagination, metaphors and metonymies for nature will be identified in the medieval creative literature, as well as the proto-scientific study of weather, and, in the context of the socioeconomic metabolism model, be brought under the light of conceptual metaphor analysis for elucidation.