La sélection des nouveaux porte-greffes du genre Prunus a pour principal objectif d’utiliser lavariabilité génétique existant au sein des différentes espèces de Prunus afin de créer un matérielvégétal innovant, performant au plan agronomique et résistant à différentes contraintes biotiques etabiotiques. L’exploitation de la variabilité génétique s'appuie sur le phénotypage des différentsindividus présents dans les collections de ressources génétiques pour les caractères recherchés. Celapermet de sélectionner des génotypes spécifiques pour améliorer un trait donné.Dans cette étude constituée de deux parties, nous avons exploré la diversité génétique au seindu genre Prunus pour ce qui concerne deux traits importants : l’aptitude au bouturage et les réponsesde certains porte-greffes à la contrainte hydrique.Dans la première partie l’aptitude au bouturage ligneux a été explorée dans une collectiongénétique de 222 génotypes. Les résultats obtenus montrent une variabilité considérable entre les sousgenresAmygdalus et Prunophora et également une variabilité interspécifique au sein de chaque sousgenre.La réussite au bouturage est nettement améliorée chez les hybrides interspécifiques dont un desparents appartient à l’espèce P cerasifera.Dans la deuxième partie nous avons étudié les réponses à la contrainte hydrique chez neufgénotypes couramment utilisés comme porte-greffes. Nous avons comparé trois régimes hydriquesdifférents : témoins, stressés et recouvrés. L’humidité du substrat est maintenue à la capacité au champtout au long de l’expérience pour les plants témoins, par contre l’arrosage a été arrêté pendant 14 jourspour les plants stressés, puis il a été repris pendant 10 jours pour les plants recouvrés. Durant cetteexpérience, nous avons effectué des mesures morphologiques et physiologiques sur la partie aérienneainsi que des excavations à la fin de chaque phase pour examiner les modifications au niveau dusystème racinaire. Sur la partie aérienne, la contrainte hydrique a provoqué une diminutionsignificative de la photosynthèse nette, de la transpiration totale, de la conductance stomatique, et del’expansion des feuilles.Le système racinaire a répondu à cette contrainte par plusieurs modifications. D’abord, le ratio racines/pousses a augmenté pour 4 génotypes (GF305, GF677, Montclar et Myrobolan1254). Ensuite, lesdifférents traits de l’architecture racinaire ont montré des modifications sous l’effet de la contraintehydrique : la longueur de la zone apicale non ramifiée (LZANR) qui traduit l’élongation racinaire,ainsi que les diamètres apicaux des racines ont diminué chez tous les génotypes. Par conséquent lesracines se sont affinées et ont réduit leur croissance en longueur. Produire des racines plus finesaugmente la surface de contact entre les racines et le sol et améliore la capacité d’absorption. Unediminution de la distance inter-ramification a été observée chez les plants stressés. Cette modificationpourrait s’expliquer par le fait que les plantes produisent plus de racines latérales en profondeur oùl’eau est souvent plus disponible. De plus, les racines latérales produites étaient également plus fines.Au plan qualitatif, les génotypes ont eu des réponses semblables, mais l’intensité de la réponse a variéselon les génotypes. / In breeding programs of Prunus rootstocks the aim is to use the existing genetic variabilitywithin Prunus species in order to create new rootstock genotypes with excellent agronomic traits, andimproved resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses.Exploitation of the genetic variability is based on the evaluation of phenotypic variation amongindividuals within genetic collections for desirable traits. This make possible to select specificgenotypes to improve a given trait.This study consists of two parts; we explored the genetic diversity within the genus Prunusregarding two important characteristics: rooting ability of hardwood cuttings and responses of somerootstocks to water stress.In the first part, rooting ability of hardwood cuttings was evaluated among 222 genotypespreserved in genetic collection. The results show considerable variability among the sub genusAmygdalus, Prunophora, and also an interspecific variability within each of them. Rooting ability byhardwood cutting was significantly improved in interspecific hybrids if one parent belongs to Pcerasifera species.In the second part of this study we studied the responses of nine genotypes, commonly usedrootstocks, to water stress. We applied three treatments: control, water stress and recovering.Soil moisture was maintained at field capacity through all stages of the experiment for the controlplants. On the contrary we stopped watering during 14 days for the stressed plants, and then we rewateredthe recovered plants for 10 days.During this experience, we performed morphological and physiological measurements on the aboveground parts of plants and we excavated plants at the end of each phase to observe root systemmodifications.Aboveground parts of plant responded to water stress by a significant decrease in net photosynthesis,total transpiration, stomatal conductance and leaf expansion.Root system responded to water stress by several modifications:Four genotypes (GF305, Montclar, GF677 and Myrobolan) showed a significant increase in root toshoot ratio under drought conditions. We also detected morphological modifications on the differenttraits of root architecture in response to water stress.The length of the apical unbranched zone LAUZ and the apical diameter were decreased forall genotypes, consequently, roots became finer and reduced their rate of elongation. Fine rootsenhance the surface of contact between roots and soil which in turn improve the acquisition of waterunder drought condition.The inter-branch distance also responded, and it tended to decrease under the water stress treatment.The decrease in inter-branch distance can be explained by a production of more lateral roots in deeplayers, where water was more available, moreover these new laterals roots were also finer.Qualitatively, a common response to water stress was observed on the different traits of the rootsystem architecture, but we showed a genotypic effect determining the level of the response.

Le sujet de l’adaptation aux changements climatiques est devenu l’un des sujets contemporains les plus importants dans la vigne. Une grande focalisation a été mise sur la compréhension des effets du porte-greffe sur la croissance du scion, l’absorption des nutriments, et la tolérance au stress, dans l’objectif final de développer de nouveaux porte-greffes qui facilitent l’adaptation au changement climatique. L’objectif de cette thèse est d’examiner comment les différences dans la résistance à la sécheresse entre les génotypes peut résulter en de grandes différences dans leur capacité à maintenir leur croissance racinaire en situation de stress. Une meilleure compréhension sur la manière dont la structure, la croissance racinaire et l’absorption d’eau répondent au stress nous permettra de mieux comprendre quels sont les aspects de la physiologie racinaire qui contribuent à la tolérance face à la sécheresse. Des recherches précédentes qui s’étaient focalisées sur l’absorption d’eau racinaire chez la vigne ont suggéré que l’absorption d’eau racinaire pouvait être fortement liée à la vitesse de croissance racinaire instantanée (voir Gambetta et al. 2013). Cette observation implique que des différences entre les génotypes dans la résistance face à la sécheresse pourrait largement résulter de leur capacité à maintenir la croissance racinaire en conditions de stress. Deux porte-greffes de vigne avec des capacités contrastées en matière de résistance à la sécheresse, le Riparia Gloire de Montpellier (RGM) et le 110 Richter (110R) ont été sélectionnés pour étudier dans cette thèse. RGM est considéré comme sensible à la sécheresse, tandis que 110R est fortement résistant à la sécheresse (Carbonneau 1985). La thèse a examiné la relation entre la croissance racinaire et la capacité de résistance à la sécheresse en évaluant la vitesse de croissance racinaire, la conductivité hydraulique à travers deux variétés de porte-greffe en conditions de déficit en eau. Le niveau de l’expression des gènes d’aquaporines (via la qPCR et l’ARNseq) et leur contribution à la conductivité hydraulique racinaire ont été analysés dans les radicelles afin d’obtenir une meilleure compréhension sur les mécanismes impliqués dans la régulation de l’absorption de l’eau racinaire et la conductivité hydraulique au cours du développement et en réponse à un manque d’eau.Le traitement de stress d’eau prolongé a diminué le potentiel hydraulique de la plante. La croissance racinaire individuelle est très hétérogène : bien que le traitement de sécheresse réduise l’élongation racinaire en moyenne, la vitesse de croissance racinaire varie tout de même énormément. Un haut niveau de stress hydrique a réduit significativement la vitesse de croissance racinaire moyenne à la fois pour RGM et 110R. Globalement, la vitesse de croissance racinaire moyenne a montré une tendance réduite au cours du développement de la plante. La température du sol est aussi un facteur qui affecte la croissance racinaire. Pour RGM et 110R, en conditionsIIde bon arrosage et de stress hydrique, la vitesse de croissance quotidienne moyenne a été positivement corrélée avec la température du sol quotidienne moyenne. En conditions de bon arrosage, des vitesses de croissance racinaires plus importantes ont été constamment observées chez 110R par rapport à RGM, ce qui pourrait être une explication possible de sa meilleure résistance à la sécheresse par rapport à 110R. [...] / The subject of adaptation to climate change has become one of the most important contemporary topics in grapevine. Much focus has been placed on the understanding of rootstocks effects on scion growth, nutrient uptake, and tolerance to stress, with the ultimate goal of developing novel rootstocks that facilitate adaptation to a changing climate. The purpose of this thesis is to examine how differences in drought resistance between genotypes could result largely from differences in their ability to maintain root growth under stress. A better understanding of how root structure, growth, and water uptake respond to stress will allow us to better understand what aspects of root physiology contribute to drought tolerance. Previous research focused on root water uptake in grapevine suggested that root water uptake could be tightly coupled to a root’s instantaneous rate of growth (see Gambetta et al. 2013). This observation implies that differences in drought resistance between genotypes could result largely from their ability to maintain root growth under stress. Two grapevine rootstocks with contrasting drought resistance capacity, Riparia Gloire de Montpellier (RGM) and 110 Richter (110R), were selected to study in this thesis. RGM is considered as sensitive to drought, while 110R is highly resistant to drought (Carbonneau 1985). The thesis examined the relationship between root growth and drought resistant capacity by assessing root growth rate, hydraulic conductivity across two rootstock varieties subjected to water deficit. The role of aquaporin gene expression (via qPCR and RNAseq) and their contribution to root hydraulic conductivity were analyzed in fine roots in order to obtain a better understanding on the mechanisms involved in the regulation of root water uptake and hydraulic conductivity across development and in response to water deficit.Prolonged water stress treatment decreased plant water potential. Individual root growth is very heterogeneous, although drought treatment reduces root elongation on average, individual root growth rate still varies enormously. High level of water stress significantly reduced average root growth rate for both RGM and 110R. Globally, average root growth rate showed a decreased trend over plant development. Soil temperature is also a factor that affects root growth. For both RGM and 110R, under both well-watered and water-stressed conditions, average daily root growth rate was positively correlated with average daily soil temperature. Under well-watered conditions, higher root growth rates were constantly observed in 110R compared to RGM, which could be one possible explanation for the higher capacity in drought resistance of 110R.Root hydraulic conductivity (Lpr) was influenced by both water stress treatment and plant developmental stage. Generally, for both RGM and 110R, Lpr was significantly reduced under water stress in early stage. In mid and late stages, no significant differences in Lpr were observedIVbetween well-watered and water-stressed plants. Changes in individual root Lpr in response to pre-dawn leaf water potential (ᴪpredawn) were investigated as well. Lpr showed a fast drop in the beginning of water stress treatment when ᴪpredawn was higher than -0.5 MPa. However, with ᴪpredawn getting more negative, e.g. from -0.4 MPa to -2.0 MPa, the range of Lpr values measured in our study maintained constant. Lpr of well-watered plants decreased as well even though their ᴪpredawn was maintained at a high level (< 0.1 MPa) during the period of the experiment. [...]

Submitted by Nadir Basilio (nadirsb@uninove.br) on 2016-06-14T16:58:55Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Mauricio Carlos Pichiliani.pdf: 772557 bytes, checksum: 4fd2547d6e865fe373022cf51022d077 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-14T16:58:55Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Mauricio Carlos Pichiliani.pdf: 772557 bytes, checksum: 4fd2547d6e865fe373022cf51022d077 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-12-11 / This paper's purpose is to study the differential tax treatment for legal microenterprises and small businesses, called the system “SIMPLES Nacional” as a way of materializing the constitutional principle of substantive equality and encourage the development of these institutions. Under the economic and legal perspective, it is initially outlined a concept of microenterprise and small business, to then be briefly discussed some recent historical aspects in Brazil about its existence and relevance. After brief comments on the legal principle of equality, particularly in the tax context, the comments made were the criteria used to establish the legal framework provided by the Constitution favored for micro and small businesses. Finally, after critical analysis of statistical data provided by official bodies such as SEBRAE and the IBGE and the research results, conclusions about the effectiveness of different tax legal system were presented, with the parameters of the theory of justice as fairness John Rawls and the constitutional goal of encouraging the development, understood as understood by Amartya Sen, as closely related to freedom. / O presente trabalho tem por objeto de estudo o tratamento jurídico tributário diferenciado destinado às microempresas e empresas de pequeno porte, denominado SIMPLES Nacional, como forma de materializar o princípio constitucional da igualdade material e incentivar o desenvolvimento dessas instituições. Sob a perspectiva econômica e jurídica, inicialmente delineou-se um conceito de microempresa e empresa de pequeno porte, para, em seguida, serem abordados brevemente alguns aspectos históricos recentes no Brasil sobre sua existência e relevância. Após breves comentários sobre o princípio jurídico da igualdade, em especial em âmbito tributário, foram tecidos comentários aos critérios utilizados para o estabelecimento do regime jurídico favorecido previsto na Constituição Federal para as microempresas e empresas de pequeno porte. Por fim, após a análise crítica de dados estatísticos veiculados por órgãos oficiais como o SEBRAE e o IBGE, e a investigação dos resultados obtidos, foram apresentadas conclusões acerca da efetividade do sistema jurídico tributário diferenciado, tendo por parâmetros a teoria da justiça como equidade de John Rawls e o objetivo constitucional de incentivo ao desenvolvimento, compreendido, segundo entendimento de Amartya Sen, como intimamente relacionado com a liberdade.

Neste trabalho, propomos um método de pontos interiores para minimização com restrições lineares de grande porte. Este método explora a linearidade das restrições, partindo de um ponto viável e preservando a viabilidade dos iterandos. Apresentamos os principais resultados de convergência global, além de uma descrição rica em detalhes de uma implementação prática de todos os passos do método. Para atestar a implementação do método, exibimos uma ampla experimentação numérica, e uma análise comparativa com métodos bem difundidos na comunidade de otimização contínua. / In this work, we propose an interior-point method for large-scale linearly constrained optimization. This method explores the linearity of the constraints, starting from a feasible point and preserving the feasibility of the iterates. We present the main global convergence results, together with a rich description of the implementation details of all the steps of the method. To validate the implementation of the method, we present a wide set of numerical experiments and a comparative analysis with well known softwares of the continuous optimization community.

En s’éloignant de l’idée des frontières qui marque une compréhension de la construction des États-nations en tant qu’entités souveraines et homogènes, cette thèse adopte une approche différente en considérant les portes et les murs comme deux métaphores centrales de transgression et de transformation qui amplifient l’expérience des réfugiés et permettent une vision transnationale et trans-mnémonique de divers souvenirs dans deux romans: « Exit West » de Mohsin Hamid et « Go, Went, Gone » de Jenny Erpenbeck. Dans mon premier chapitre, j’explore comment les souvenirs des Allemands sont dialogiquement liés aux souvenirs des réfugiés à travers les paradigmes de l’espace et du temps, ainsi que du passé et du présent, en examinant l’impact durable du mur de Berlin dans « Go, Went, Gone ». Mon deuxième chapitre étudie la métaphore des portes dans « Exit West » qui défient les frontières et la revendication de souveraineté des États-nations. L’objectif de mon chapitre est de comprendre comment ces portes facilitent la mobilité sans contraintes à travers l’espace et le temps, en nous encourageant à réévaluer l’universalité de la migration. Je me réfère principalement au concept de mémoire multidirectionnelle de Rothberg, en relation avec l’étude de Brand sur les mémoires collectives et interconnectées de la traite transatlantique des esclaves qui mobilise les portes comme dispositifs mnémoniques. J’utilise également la notion du « living in the Wake » en relation avec « Afterlife of slavery » de Sharpe pour comprendre comment les souvenirs des réfugiés et des citoyens des États-nations sont dialogiques à travers différentes géographies et temporalités. De plus, je m’appuie sur le concept de « de-borderization » d’Achille Mbembe en lien avec les perspectives de Gloria Anzaldúa sur les frontières pour une meilleure compréhension de l’expérience des réfugiés. / Moving away from borders that signal an understanding of the construction of nation-states as sovereign and homogenous entities, this thesis takes a different approach by considering doors and walls as two central metaphors of transgression and transformation that dramatize the refugee experience and enable a transnational and trans-mnemonic reading of various memories in two novels: Mohsin Hamid’s Exit West (2017) and Jenny Erpenbeck’s Go, Went, Gone (2015). The first chapter of the thesis addresses how memories of Germans are dialogically connected to the memories of refugees across the paradigms of space and time, past and present, through an exploration of the enduring impact of the Berlin Wall in Go, Went, Gone. The second chapter studies the metaphor of doors in Exit West that move beyond borders and challenge the nation-states’ claim to sovereignty to understand how they allow free movement across space and time and rethink the universality of migration. The thesis builds on Michael Rothberg’s concept of multidirectional memory in relation to Dionne Brand’s study of collective and interconnected memories of the slave trade that mobilizes doors as mnemonic devices, and Jenny Sharpe’s notion of “living in the wake” in connection to the afterlife of slavery to understand how memories of refugees and natives of nation-states are dialogical across different geographies and temporalities. Additionally, I rely on Achille Mbembe’s notion of “de-borderization” and relate it to Gloria Anzaldúa’s views on borders to better understand literary representations of the refugee experience.

Dans le contexte de raréfaction de la ressource en eau, il est nécessaire de prendre en compte le caractère de tolérance à la sécheresse dans les programmes d’amélioration variétale, en particulier pour les porte-greffes de vigne. L’objectif de cette thèse est d’analyser, à l’échelle de la plante entière, le déterminisme génétique des effets du porte-greffe sur les réponses de la tranpiration et de la croissance, au niveau de la partie aérienne, en conditions de déficit hydrique édaphique. L’étude de ces caractères complexes, soumis à une forte interaction génotype × environnement, a été conduite à partir d’une approche de génétique quantitative où ces interactions ont été intégrées par deux approches : l’utilisation des paramètres de courbes de réponses comme caractère quantitatif et la mise en oeuvre d’une analyse QTL pluriannuelle. Une population de type F1, issu du croisement Vitis vinifera Cabernet Sauvignon × Vitis riparia Gloire de Montpellier, constituée de 138 individus, a été cartographiée génétiquement avec des marqueurs microsatellites. Cette descendance a été ensuite phénotypée en position de porte-greffe, avec un greffon unique. A partir de cet outil, des QTL ont été recherchés et identifiés pour la transpiration, l’efficience d’utilisation de l’eau et la plasticité de la transpiration induite par le porte-greffe, ainsi que pour plusieurs paramètres de la croissance et de l’allocation de la biomasse au sein de la plante entière. La plasticité de la transpiration réponse à l’état hydrique du substrat est déterminée génétiquement par des régions distinctes des autres caractères descriptifs de la consommation en eau. La colocalisation de gènes candidats dans les intervalles de confiance des QTL, impliqués dans la signalisation chimique (ABA) ou hydraulique (aquaporines) permet de formuler des hypothèses sur la signalisation porte-greffe/ greffon en condition de déficit hydrique. Des régions spécifiques du génome paraissent contrôler la croissance et la vigueur conférée par le porte-greffe en conditions de déficit hydrique. Ces régions sont également indépendantes de celles contrôlant la transpiration ou l’efficience d’utilisation de l’eau. Ce résultat permet d’envisager un travail de sélection pour ces deux catégories de caractères de manière indépendante / In the water scarcity context with the global climate change, drought tolerance must be taken into account in crop genetic improvement program, particularly for grapevine rootstocks. The objective of this thesis was to analyse at the whole plant level, the genetic determinism of rootstock effect on the transpiration and growth of the scion, under edaphic water deficit conditions. The study of these complex traits, submitted to a strong genotype × environment interaction, was performed with a quantitative genetic approach. Genotype × environment interactions were integrated with two methods: first, using response curve to an environmental variable for detecting QTL, and secondly, to combine data in a multi-environment QTL analysis. The pedigree population consisted of 138 F1 individuals derived from the interspecific cross of Vitis vinifera Cabernet Sauvignon × Vitis riparia Gloire de Montpellier. This family was mapped with single sequence repeats (SSR) markers. This population was assessed as rootstock, so every genotype was grafted with the same scion. Then, QTL were detected for transpiration, water use efficiency and transpiration plasticity induced by rootstock, and for growth and biomass allocation inside the whole plant. Transpiration plasticity was represented as a function of substrate water status and was genetically determined with distinct genome regions from the other traits related to water consumption. Candidate genes involved in hormonal (ABA) or hydraulic (aquaporins) signaling between rootstock and scion, under water deficit conditions, were localized in the QTL confidence interval. Some specific genome regions were involved in growth and confered vigour genetic determinism under water deficit conditions. These regions were also different from those identified for transpiration or water use efficiency. This result allows a further selection process for these two traits groups independently.

La maladie des artères périphériques (MAP) se manifeste par une réduction (sténose) de la lumière de l’artère des membres inférieurs. Elle est causée par l’athérosclérose, une accumulation de cellules spumeuses, de graisse, de calcium et de débris cellulaires dans la paroi artérielle, généralement dans les bifurcations et les ramifications. Par ailleurs, la MAP peut être causée par d`autres facteurs associés comme l’inflammation, une malformation anatomique et dans de rares cas, au niveau des artères iliaques et fémorales, par la dysplasie fibromusculaire. L’imagerie ultrasonore est le premier moyen de diagnostic de la MAP. La littérature clinique rapporte qu’au niveau de l’artère fémorale, l’écho-Doppler montre une sensibilité de 80 à 98 % et une spécificité de 89 à 99 % à détecter une sténose supérieure à 50 %. Cependant, l’écho-Doppler ne permet pas une cartographie de l’ensemble des artères des membres inférieurs. D’autre part, la reconstruction 3D à partir des images échographiques 2D des artères atteintes de la MAP est fortement opérateur dépendant à cause de la grande variabilité des mesures pendant l’examen par les cliniciens. Pour planifier une intervention chirurgicale, les cliniciens utilisent la tomodensitométrie (CTA), l’angiographie par résonance magnétique (MRA) et l’angiographie par soustraction numérique (DSA). Il est vrai que ces modalités sont très performantes. La CTA montre une grande précision dans la détection et l’évaluation des sténoses supérieures à 50 % avec une sensibilité de 92 à 97 % et une spécificité entre 93 et 97 %. Par contre, elle est ionisante (rayon x) et invasive à cause du produit de contraste, qui peut causer des néphropathies. La MRA avec injection de contraste (CE MRA) est maintenant la plus utilisée. Elle offre une sensibilité de 92 à 99.5 % et une spécificité entre 64 et 99 %. Cependant, elle sous-estime les sténoses et peut aussi causer une néphropathie dans de rares cas. De plus les patients avec stents, implants métalliques ou bien claustrophobes sont exclus de ce type d`examen. La DSA est très performante mais s`avère invasive et ionisante. Aujourd’hui, l’imagerie ultrasonore (3D US) s’est généralisée surtout en obstétrique et échocardiographie. En angiographie il est possible de calculer le volume de la plaque grâce à l’imagerie ultrasonore 3D, ce qui permet un suivi de l’évolution de la plaque athéromateuse au niveau des vaisseaux. L’imagerie intravasculaire ultrasonore (IVUS) est une technique qui mesure ce volume. Cependant, elle est invasive, dispendieuse et risquée. Des études in vivo ont montré qu’avec l’imagerie 3D-US on est capable de quantifier la plaque au niveau de la carotide et de caractériser la géométrie 3D de l'anastomose dans les artères périphériques. Par contre, ces systèmes ne fonctionnent que sur de courtes distances. Par conséquent, ils ne sont pas adaptés pour l’examen de l’artère fémorale, à cause de sa longueur et de sa forme tortueuse. L’intérêt pour la robotique médicale date des années 70. Depuis, plusieurs robots médicaux ont été proposés pour la chirurgie, la thérapie et le diagnostic. Dans le cas du diagnostic artériel, seuls deux prototypes sont proposés, mais non commercialisés. Hippocrate est le premier robot de type maitre/esclave conçu pour des examens des petits segments d’artères (carotide). Il est composé d’un bras à 6 degrés de liberté (ddl) suspendu au-dessus du patient sur un socle rigide. À partir de ce prototype, un contrôleur automatisant les déplacements du robot par rétroaction des images échographiques a été conçu et testé sur des fantômes. Le deuxième est le robot de la Colombie Britannique conçu pour les examens à distance de la carotide. Le mouvement de la sonde est asservi par rétroaction des images US. Les travaux publiés avec les deux robots se limitent à la carotide. Afin d’examiner un long segment d’artère, un système robotique US a été conçu dans notre laboratoire. Le système possède deux modes de fonctionnement, le mode teach/replay (voir annexe 3) et le mode commande libre par l’utilisateur. Dans ce dernier mode, l’utilisateur peut implémenter des programmes personnalisés comme ceux utilisés dans ce projet afin de contrôler les mouvements du robot. Le but de ce projet est de démontrer les performances de ce système robotique dans des conditions proches au contexte clinique avec le mode commande libre par l’utilisateur. Deux objectifs étaient visés: (1) évaluer in vitro le suivi automatique et la reconstruction 3D en temps réel d’une artère en utilisant trois fantômes ayant des géométries réalistes. (2) évaluer in vivo la capacité de ce système d'imagerie robotique pour la cartographie 3D en temps réel d'une artère fémorale normale. Pour le premier objectif, la reconstruction 3D US a été comparée avec les fichiers CAD (computer-aided-design) des fantômes. De plus, pour le troisième fantôme, la reconstruction 3D US a été comparée avec sa reconstruction CTA, considéré comme examen de référence pour évaluer la MAP. Cinq chapitres composent ce mémoire. Dans le premier chapitre, la MAP sera expliquée, puis dans les deuxième et troisième chapitres, l’imagerie 3D ultrasonore et la robotique médicale seront développées. Le quatrième chapitre sera consacré à la présentation d’un article intitulé " A robotic ultrasound scanner for automatic vessel tracking and three-dimensional reconstruction of B-mode images" qui résume les résultats obtenus dans ce projet de maîtrise. Une discussion générale conclura ce mémoire. L’article intitulé " A 3D ultrasound imaging robotic system to detect and quantify lower limb arterial stenoses: in vivo feasibility " de Marie-Ange Janvier et al dans l’annexe 3, permettra également au lecteur de mieux comprendre notre système robotisé. Ma contribution dans cet article était l’acquisition des images mode B, la reconstruction 3D et l’analyse des résultats pour le patient sain. / Locating and quantifying stenosis length and severity are essential for planning adequate treatment of peripheral arterial disease (PAD). To do this, clinicians use imaging methods such as ultrasound (US), Magnetic Resonance Angiography (MRA) and Computed Tomography Angiography (CTA). However, US examination cannot provide maps of entire lower limb arteries in 3D, MRA is expensive and invasive, CTA is ionizing and also invasive. We propose a new 3D-US robotic system with B-mode images, which is non-ionizing, non-invasive, and is able to track and reconstruct in 3D the superficial femoral artery from the iliac down to the popliteal artery, in real time. In vitro, 3D-US reconstruction was evaluated for simple and complex geometries phantoms in comparison with their computer-aided-design (CAD) file in terms of lengths, cross sectional areas and stenosis severity. In addition, for the phantom with a complex geometry, an evaluation was realized using Hausdorff distance, cross-sectional area and stenosis severity in comparison with 3D reconstruction with CTA. A mean Hausdorff distance of 0.97± 0.46 mm was found for 3D-US compared to 3D-CTA vessel representations. In vitro investigation to evaluate stenosis severity when compared with the original phantom CAD file showed that 3D-US reconstruction, with 3%-6% error, is better than 3D-CTA reconstruction, with 4-13% error. The in vivo system’s feasibility to reconstruct a normal femoral artery segment of a volunteer was also investigated. All of these promising results show that our ultrasound robotic system is able to track automatically the vessel and reconstruct it in 3D as well as CTA. Clinically, our system will allow firstly to the radiologist to have 3D images readily interpretable and secondly, to avoid radiation and contrast agent for patients.

In spite tropical forests are the most important terrestrial global carbon sinks due to carbon storage in aboveground biomass, it is also the primary target of deforestation. The conversion of Tropical forests into anthropogenic areas might disrupt biological flux and also lead to severe microclimatic changes at forest edges. These combined effects can trigger profound changes in plant composition through both high mortality of fragmentation-sensitive species and proliferation of disturbed-adapted species which will ultimately impacts carbon storage. Thus, our main objective in this study was understand the role of human-induced disturbances in modulate the dimension of biomass loss at tropical forests. We applied a systematic literature review searching for empirical evidences that edge effects can drive biomass loss in tropical forests (Chapter 2). Our findings highlighted the gap of knowledge about the pattern and process related to biomass loss in tropical forests. To strengthen this understanding, we formulated a conceptual model linking landscape structure and patch-level attributes to severity of edge effects affecting aboveground biomass. Our model hypothesizes that habitat amount, isolation, time since edge creation, and the synergism between edge distance, patch size, and matrix type are the main drivers of biomass loss in anthropogenic tropical forests. We thus used a large plant dataset (18 503 trees &ge; 10 cm dbh) from 146 sites distributed across four Mexican and four Brazilian rainforest regions to test our conceptual model predictions, specifically the influence of forest cover, site isolation, edge distance, patch size and type of matrix on biomass (Chapter 3). We observed that carbon-rich sites presented species that are typical of old-growth forests (shade-tolerant, large-seeded, zoocoric) contrasting to carbon-poor sites composed by disturbed-adapted species (pioneer occupying the understory). Large shade-tolerant trees (&ge; 40 cm dbh) were impacted severely by the combination of forest loss and edge effects. Edge distance, patch size, and the amount of open-matrix strongly influence small shade-tolerant trees (&le; 20 cm dbh). Although our results do not fully corroborate the initial predictions of the conceptual model, they support the idea that landscape composition interact with patch structure and ultimately impacts biomass stocks in fragmented tropical forests. Finally, we further investigated if the disturbance level of the region influences plant-structure responses to forest loss (Chapter 4). Biomass, but not plant density, was affected by forest loss in regions with intermediate disturbance levels, i.e. regions showing a combination of moderate deforestation (20-40% of remaining forest cover) disturbed during the past 30-60 years, high defaunation but harboring relictual populations of large-mammals, and areas mostly composed by heterogeneous matrices. In general, our findings highlight that both landscape composition and patch structure are the main drivers of biomass loss in Neotropical forests, and that the landscape context must be considered to obtain more reliable estimations of carbon emissions due to forest degradation. Landscape planning (e.g. restoration of forest cover) should be included in conservation strategies in order to sustain carbon storage. Moreover, we advocate that conservation initiatives will be less costly and more effective if implemented in areas under intermediate disturbance levels / Apesar das florestas tropicais serem a mais importante fonte mundial de carbono da porção terrestre do globo devido ao armazenamento de carbono na biomassa acima do solo, elas são também o alvo primário do desmatamento. A conversão das florestas Tropicais em áreas antropogênicas pode interromper o fluxo biológico e também levar a severas mudanças microclimáticas na borda dos fragmentos. A combinação desses efeitos pode engatilhar profundas mudanças na composição da vegetação através tanto da mortalidade de espécies sensíveis à fragmentação como também pela proliferação de espécies adaptadas distúrbios, com impactos finais nos estoques de carbono. Assim, o maior objetivo desse estudo foi compreender o papel dos distúrbios induzidos pelo homem na modulação da dimensão da perda de biomassa em florestas Tropicais. Nós aplicamos uma revisão sistemática da literatura procurando por evidências empíricas de que o efeito de borda pode levar a perda de biomassa em florestas tropicais (Capítulo 2). Nossos resultados destacam a lacuna de conhecimento entre padrões e processos relacionados à perda de biomassa em florestas Tropicais. Para fortalecer esse conhecimento, nós formulamos um modelo conceitual conectando estrutura da paisagem e atributos na escala do fragmento à severidade do efeito de borda, e assim afetando a biomassa acima do solo. Nosso modelo hipotetiza que a quantidade de hábitat, o isolamento, o tempo desde a formação da borda e o sinergismo entre tamanho do fragmento, distância da borda e tipo de matriz são os principais condutores de perda de biomassa em florestas Tropicais antropogênicas. Utilizando um grande banco de dados (18 503 árvores &ge; 10 cm dap) provenientes de 146 locais distribuídos em quatro regiões de floresta úmida no México e quatro no Brasil, nós então testamos as predições do nosso modelo conceitual. Especificamente, a influência da cobertura florestal, isolamento, distância da borda, tamanho do fragmento e tipo de matriz sobre a biomassa (Capítulo 3). Nós observamos que áreas com muito carbono apresentaram espécies típicas de florestas maduras (tolerantes ao sombreamento, zoocóricas, com sementes grandes) contrastando com áreas com pouco carbono compostas por espécies adaptadas à distúrbio (pioneiras ocupando o sub-bosque). Árvores grandes tolerantes ao sombreamento (&ge; 40 cm dap) foram impactadas severamente pela combinação de perda de cobertura florestal e efeitos de borda. Distância da borda, tamanho do fragmento e a extensão da área de matriz aberta influenciaram fortemente as árvores pequenas tolerantes a sombreamento (&le; 20 cm dap). Apesar dos nossos resultados não corroborarem completamente as predições iniciais do nosso modelo conceitual, eles dão suporte à ideia de que a composição da paisagem interage com a estrutura do fragmento com impactos finais nos estoques de biomassa em florestas Neotropicais. Por fim, nós investigamos se o nível de distúrbio da região pode influenciar nas respostas da estrutura da vegetação à perda de cobertura florestal. Biomassa, mas não a densidade de indivíduos, foi afetada pela perda de cobertura florestal em regiões com nível intermediário de distúrbio, i.e. regiões apresentando uma combinação de níveis moderados de desmatamento (20-40% de cobertura florestal remanescente) em que a perturbação ocorreu ao longo dos últimos 30-60 anos, com alto grau de defaunação mas ainda abrigando populações relictuais de grandes mamíferos e, em sua maioria, compostos por uma matriz heterogênea. Em geral, nossos resultados destacaram que tanto a composição da paisagem como a estrutura do fragmento são os principais condutores de perda de biomassa em florestas Neotropicais e que o contexto da paisagem deve ser considerado para se obter estimativas mais confiáveis de emissão de carbono devido à degradação florestal. O planejamento da paisagem (e.g. restauração da cobertura florestal) deve ser incluído em estratégias de conservação em ordem de sustentar o armazenamento de carbono. Além disso, nós defendemos que iniciativas de conservação serão menos custosas e mais efetivas se implementadas em áreas sob níveis intermediários de distúrbio

A Lei nº 12.587, de 3 de janeiro de 2012, obriga a todos os municípios brasileiros com população superior a 20 mil habitantes a elaborarem um plano de mobilidade urbana integrado e compatível com seus respectivos planos diretores ou neles inseridos, priorizando os modos de transporte não motorizados. Apesar da exigência legal, muitos municípios brasileiros, principalmente os de pequeno porte, não dispõem de diretrizes para o desenvolvimento de sistemas cicloviários. O objetivo deste trabalho é elaborar um método para definição de rede de rotas cicláveis em áreas urbanas de cidades de pequeno porte, cuja ideia central é avaliar segmentos viários com relação a fatores que influenciam no uso da bicicleta como modo de transporte urbano, tais como declividade, disponibilidade de espaço e influência exercida pelos veículos motorizados. O método proposto é subdividido em cinco etapas: (1) caracterização da área de estudo; (2) análise dos polos geradores de tráfego por bicicletas; (3) avaliação da compatibilidade das vias com o transporte cicloviário; (4) identificação das rotas cicláveis; e (5) definição da rede. Os modelos escolhidos para a verificação do perfil topográfico e para a avaliação da qualidade de serviço das vias de tráfego para o transporte cicloviário são, respectivamente, o modelo da AASHTO (1999) e o modelo de Sorton e Walsh (1994). Foi realizado um estudo de caso na cidade de Bariri-SP. Os resultados mostram que as rotas cicláveis identificadas priorizam segmentos com infraestrutura cicloviária pré-existente, assim como locais que necessitam de facilidades para ciclistas, como ciclofaixas e ciclovias, e dispõem de espaço para sua inserção. Quanto aos espaços compartilhados, nota-se uma tendência de que as rotas cicláveis sejam compostas por segmentos com boas avaliações globais de nível de estresse. A rede de rotas cicláveis definida para a cidade de Bariri-SP é formada por 19 eixos viários distribuídos de maneira a atender toda a área delimitada para estudo. / The law 12.587 of January 3rd, 2012, enforces every Brazilian city over 20,000 inhabitants to elaborate an urban mobility plan integrated and compatible with their respective master plans, giving priority to non-motorized transportation modes. Despite legal enforcement, many Brazilian cities, mainly the small ones, are not given proper guidelines to develop cycling systems. This research\'s goal is to elaborate a method to define a cycling routes network in urban areas of small-sized cities, whose main point is to assess road segments according to factors that influence the bicycle use as an urban transportation mode, such as slope, space availability to stand cycling transportation as well as motorized vehicles influence on bicycle traffic. The proposed method splits into five steps: (1) study area characterization; (2) analysis of bicycle traffic generator poles; (3) evaluation of the streets compatibility with bicycle transportation; (4) cycling routes identification; (5) network definition. The chosen models for topographic verification and service quality ratings of the roads for cycling transportation are, respectively, the AASHTO\'s (1999) model and the Sorton and Walsh\'s (1994) model. A case study was carried out in the city of Bariri-SP. The results of the proposed method\'s application show that the identified cycling routes prioritize road segments with cycling infrastructure already existent, as well as places in need of cycling facilities, such as cycle lanes and cycle paths, that have available space to accommodate them. Concerning shared spaces, there\'s a trend that cycling routes are composed of segments with good global stress level evaluations. The cycling routes network defined in the city of Bariri-SP is made up by 19 road axes widespread to serve the whole area delimited for study.

Na ocorrência de uma ou de múltiplas faltas permanentes em sistemas de distribuição de energia elétrica é inevitável a ausência de fornecimento à algumas cargas. Contudo, devido à presença de chaves seccionadoras, após a localização e isolação do trecho sob falta, é possível restaurar o abastecimento de energia a estas cargas fora de serviço. Para tal é necessária a obtenção de um plano de restabelecimento adequado, no menor intervalo de tempo possível, capaz de informar as chaves que devem ser operadas a fim de reconectar estas cargas à rede e sem sobrecarregar nenhum equipamento. Neste sentido, têm sido propostas metodologias para auxiliar as atividades dos operadores de sistemas de distribuição por meio do fornecimento de planos de restabelecimento de energia em situações de contingência. Todavia, a aplicação da maioria destas técnicas restringe-se à redes pequenas, quando comparadas às redes reais que possuem milhares de barras e chaves. Em outras metodologias, na tentativa de superar esta limitação, são feitas simplificações na representação da rede, desconsiderando alguns dos seus elementos. Nestes casos, a solução fornecida para a rede simplificada pode não ter o mesmo desempenho na rede em operação, o que compromete a confiabilidade dessas metodologias. Em outros métodos, ainda, a rede é representada com todas as suas barras e chaves, no entanto, deixam de considerar a presença de consumidores especiais, que exigem prioridade de fornecimento, bem como de chaves existentes na rede que podem ser operadas remotamente. Face ao exposto, propõe-se uma metodologia para determinação, em tempo real, de planos de restabelecimento de energia elétrica em sistemas de distribuição de grande porte em situações de uma ou de múltiplas faltas. Para lidar com os múltiplos objetivos deste problema, sendo alguns dele conflitantes entre si, esta será baseada em Algoritmos Evolutivos Multi-Objetivo, enquanto que a representação computacional sem simplificações da rede será proporcionada por uma codificação de dados apoiada na teoria de grafos e denominada Representação Nó-Profundidade. A fim de diminuir o tempo e o custo de implementação dos planos obtidos, será considerada e dado prioridade de manobra às chaves controladas remotamente, que podem ser alteradas do centro de operações. Será dado prioridade também ao fornecimento de energia de consumidores especiais. Por fim, para cada plano de restabelecimento fornecido será definida uma sequência factível de chaves que, quando alteradas, reconectarão as cargas sãs fora de serviço e eliminarão sobrecargas ou perfis de tensão inadequados. Para validar a metodologia proposta serão realizadas simulações computacionais no sistema de distribuição real da cidade de São Carlos-SP, em operação no ano de 1994, e nas suas versões duplicada, quadruplicada e octuplicada. / The occurrence of one or multiple permanent faults in electric power distribution systems is inevitable the privation of the service to some loads. However, due to the presence of switches, after the location and isolation of the faulted section, you can restore the power supply to these out of service loads. To this it is necessary to obtain, as soon as possible, a suitable restoration plan. It must be able to inform the switches that must be operated in order to reconnect these loads without overloading on any network or equipment. In this sense, it has been proposed methods to assist the operators\' activities of the of distribution systems by providing plans to restore the service in contingency situations. However, the application of the most of these techniques is limited to small networks, when they are compared to real networks that have thousands of bars and keys. In other methodologies, in order to overcome this limitation, simplications are made in the representation of the network, ignoring some of its elements. In these cases, the solution provided for a simplied network may not have the same performance on the network in operation, which aects the reliability of these methodologies. In other methods, the network is represented with all of its bars and switches. However, these methodologies do not consider the presence of the special consumers that require service priority neither the switches that can be operated remotely. Given the above, we propose a methodology for determining, in real time, plans for service restoration in large-scale electric distribution systems in situations of one or multiple faults. To deal with the multiple objectives of this problem, some of them con icting, the proposed method will be based on Multi-Objective Evolutionary Algorithms. Moreover, the computational representation without simplications of the network will be provided by a data encoding based in graph theory and called Node-Depth Encoding. In order to reduce the time and cost of the implementation of the plans obtained, it will be considered and given priority to maneuvers in remotely controlled switches, which can be changed from the operation center. Priority will be given also to the power supply of special consumers. Finally, for each restoration plan provided will be gotten a feasible switching sequence that, when implemented, will reconnect the out of service loads and eliminate overloads or inadequate voltage proles. To validate the proposed methodology it will be performed computer simulations in the real distribution system of the São Carlos-SP city, in operation in 1994, and their doubled, quadruplicate and octuplicate versions.