Ved består huvudsakligen av tre typer av polymerer, cellulosa, hemicellulosa och lignin. Lignin bildas i naturen genom enzymatiskt initierad oxidativ koppling av tre olika typer av fenylpropan-enheter. Dessa bygger genom olika kol-kol- och kol-syre-bindningar upp en amorf tredimensionell polymer. När kemisk massa tillverkas bryts lignin ner och löses ut i kokluten. Luten innehåller de förbrukade kokkemikalierna och bränns generellt i en sodapanna för att regenerera kemikalierna och producera ånga. Sodapannan är emellertid dyr. Därför har den blivit produktionsbegränsande på många massabruk. Att avlägsna en del av ligninet från avluten vore därför önskvärt och att finna ekonomiskt intressanta produkter baserade på lignin från svartlut är därför ett viktigt forskningsområde . Ett lämpligt område för ligninprodukter vore som tillsatts i oblekt massa. Oblekt massa används till stor del för tillverkning av kraftliner, topp- och bottenskikten på wellpapp. När lådor av wellpapp lagras i containrar som färdas över haven, förändras den relativa luftfuktigheten. Detta gör att lådorna kollapsar lättare än om de skulle ha lagrats vid konstant luftfuktighet, även en hög sådan. Detta är på grund av det så kallade mekanosorptiva- eller accelererade krypfenomenet. Genom tillsatts av våtstyrkemedel till kraftliner eller behandla den med hydrofoba ämnen, finns indikatoner på att mekanosorptiva effekten skulle kunna minska. För att försöka minska den effekten har ett lågmolekylärt kraftlignin, som utvunnits med hjälp av tvärsflödesfiltrering av svartlut och svavelsyrafällning, använts. Genom derivatisering av detta lignin med linolja erhölls ett hydrofobt ligninderivat som uppvisar strukturella likheter med biopolymeren suberin. När detta suberinlika ligninderivat tillsätts till massa verkar det mekanosorptiva krypet minska. När lågmolekylärt lignin används tillsammans med ligninradikalinitiatorerna lackas eller mangan(III) i kraftlinermassa erhålls dessutom en våtstyrka på ca 5% av torrstyrkan. Efter aminering av detta lignin gav en tillsatts till kraftlinermassan en våtstyrka på upp till 10% av torrstyrkan. Det finns indikationer på att det mekanosorptiva krypet samtidigt minskar när dessa behandlingar görs som ger upphov till ökad våtstyrka. / Wood consists mainly of three types of polymers; cellulose, hemi cellulose and lignin. Lignin is formed in nature through enzymatic initiated oxidative coupling of three different kinds of phenyl propane units. These form by various carbon-carbon and carbon-oxygen bonds, an amorphous three-dimensional polymer. As chemical pulp is produced, lignin is degraded and dissolved into pulping liquors. These liquors contain the spent cooking chemicals and are generally burnt in a recovery boiler to regenerate cooking chemicals and produce steam. However, the recovery boiler is expensive. Hence, it has become the bottleneck for production in many pulp mills. Removal of some lignin from the spent cooking liquor would, for that reason, be desired and valuable products based on lignin from cooking liquors are searched for. One suitable area for lignin products would be as additive in unbleached pulp. A major product from unbleached pulp is kraftliner, the top and bottom layers of corrugated board. When boxes of corrugated board are stored in containers travelling overseas the relative humidity is varying. This makes the boxes collapse more easily than if they were stored at constant humidity, even a high one. This is due to the so called mechano-sorptive or accelerated creep phenomenon. By addition of wet strength additive to kraftliner or treating it with hydrophobic compounds there are indications on that the mechano-sorptive effect would decrease. Trying to decrease this effect, low molecular weight kraft lignin has been used. It was obtained by cross-flow filtration of black liquor and precipitation by sulphuric acid. By derivatisation of this lignin by linseed oil, a hydrophobic lignin derivative was obtained, similar in structure to units in the biopolymer suberin. As this suberin-like lignin-derivative was added to pulp the mechano-sorptive creep seemed to be lowered. Furthermore, when the low molecular weight lignin was used together with the lignin radical initiators laccase or manganese(III) in kraftliner pulp, a wet strength of about 5% of dry strength was obtained. An amination treatment of this lignin and addition to kraftliner pulp resulted in a wet strength of up to 10% of dry strength. There are indications of that the mechano-sorptive creep also decreases as these treatments, resulting in increased wet strength, are made. / QC 20101103

In the search for green energy to combat climatechange, a shift from conventional energy sources such as coal,oil, and nuclear towards Renewable Energy Sources (RES) isneeded. This shift poses a threat to the stability of the powergrids as RES do not contribute with rotating mass in the system.A lack of rotating mass, or in other words inertia, jeopardizesthe ability of power systems to counteract large disturbances.Frequency Containment Reserves (FCR) units are responsiblefor controlling the frequency in power systems by regulatingthe balance between the generated and consumed power. If thefrequency deviates outside of the defined range from the nominalvalue, it can lead to system separation, blackouts, and systemequipment damage. The frequency deviations are faster in lowinertia systems, making it more difficult for FCR to keep thefrequency within accepted ranges. Hydro turbines are often usedas FCR units, but additional means of support could be neededfor low inertia systems. Viable support could be battery systems.This project investigates the change towards low inertia and thepossible implementation of a battery system as fast step-wisepower support with a frequency trigger. The investigation is donethrough case studies of simulated system models in Matlab andSimulink. / I jakten på grön energi för att bekämpa klimatförändringarna behövs en övergång från konventionella energikällor som kol, olja och kärnkraft mot förnyelsebara energikällor. Denna övergång utgör ett hot mot kraftnätens stabilitet då förnyelsebara energikällor inte bidrar med roterande massa. Brist på roterande massa eller med andra ord tröghet äventyrar kraftsystemens förmåga att motverka stora störningar. Frequency Containment Reserves (FCR) är system som aktivt arbetar med att styra frekvensen i kraftsystemet genom att reglera balansen mellan den producerade och konsumerade effekten. Om detta misslyckas och frekvensen avviker för mycket från den nominella frekvensen kan detta leda till systemseparation, strömavbrott eller skada hos systemkomponenter. I ett system med låg tröghet blir frekvensavvikelserna snabbare. Detta gör det svårare att använda sig av FCR för att hålla frekvensen inom accepterade intervall. Vattenkraftverk används ofta som FCR enheter, men för system med låg tröghet kan ytterliggare stöd behövas. Ett möjligt effektstöd kan vara batterisystem. Detta projekt undersöker förändringen till lägre tröghet i ett kraftsystem och möjlig implementering av ett batterisystem med ett snabbt stegsvar för effektstöd, vilket aktiveras vid en förbestämd frekvens. Undersökningen görs genom studier av specifika fall med en linjäriserad modell av ett kraftsystemet, lerade i Matlab och Simulink. / Kandidatexjobb i elektroteknik 2021, KTH, Stockholm

The title compounds, C23H25Br2NO2 (1) and C31H29BrN2O4 (2), crystallize in the space group P21/n with two (1-A and 1-B) and one mol­ecules, respectively, in the asymmetric unit of the cell. The mol­ecular conformation of these compounds is stabilized by intra­molecular C—H⋯O hydrogen bonds and C—H⋯N or C—H⋯π inter­actions. The crystal structure of 1 features a relatively strong Br⋯O=C halogen bond, which is not observed in the case of 2. Both crystal structures are characterized by the presence of C—H⋯Br hydrogen bonds and numerous inter­molecular C—H⋯O hydrogen-bonding inter­actions.

The title compound, C20H18O3, crystallizes in the space group P21/c with one mol­ecule in the asymmetric unit of the cell. The fluorene skeleton is nearly planar and the crystal structure is composed of mol­ecular layers extending parallel to the (302) plane. Within a layer, one formyl oxygen atom participates in the formation of a Carene—H...O bond, which is responsible for the formation of an inversion symmetric supra­molecular motif of graph set R22(10). A second oxygen atom is involved in an intra­molecular Carene—H...O hydrogen bond and is further connected with a formyl hydrogen atom of an adjacent mol­ecule. A Hirshfeld surface analysis indicated that the most important contributions to the overall surface are from H...H (46.9%), O...H (27.9%) and C...H (17.8%) inter­actions.

No / Sedimentation of non-homogeneous systems is the typical phenomenon indicating the physical instability as a key measure to the quality control of the preparation products. Currently, the determination methods for the sedimentation of non-homogeneous preparations are based on manual measurement or semi-quantitative observation, lacking of either automation or quantitative dynamic analysis. The purpose of this research was to realize automatic and quantitative monitoring of the sedimentation dynamics for non-homogenous systems as suspension, emulsions at laboratory level. Non-contact measurement method has been established to determine the sedimentation behaviors in a standard quartz tube for sedimentation, with internal diameter and height 23 mm and 215 mm, respectively, with controlled temperature and light intensity. As high performance camera has been equipped, the sedimentation images with high spatial and temporal resolution could be acquired, which can continuously capture sedimentation images with the resolution of 2048 x 2048 pixel at a maximum rate of 60 slides/s. All the pictures were processed to extract the luminance matrix top-down along the fixed vertical midline of each picture, which implied sedimentation characteristics of the system at the moment the picture was taken. Combining all the luminance matrixes along vertical middle lines of the pictures, a time-luminance matrix profile was obtained. Digital image processing techniques were used to eliminate interference and establish a three-dimensional surface model of the sedimentation dynamics. Then, the derivative mutation algorithm has been developed for the intelligent identification of sedimentation interface with threshold optimization so as to quantitatively analyze the sedimentation dynamics with visualization. The sedimentation curve and sedimentation dynamic equation of the non-homogeneous system were finally outputted by numerical fitting. The methodology was validated for great significance in determinations of small volume samples, parallel control multiple batches, and long period of time automatic measurement. (C) 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

La méthode des régions-solutions a été développée par Frigon [7] en 2018 pour montrer l'existence de solutions à des équations différentielles ordinaires de premier ordre, dont le graphe d'une solution se trouve à l'intérieur d'une région-solution \(R \subset [0, T] \times \mathbb{R}^{N}\). Cette méthode est en particulier une généralisation des sous et sur-solutions et des tubes-solutions. On présente cette méthode et certains résultats d'existence qui en découlent. D'autre part, la dérivée de Stieltjes, communément appelée \(g\)-dérivée, est le fruit du travail de Pouso et Rodríguez [20] en 2014, permettant l'unification des équations différentielles classiques, des équations aux échelles de temps et des équations différentielles avec impulsions. Elle est en particulier liée au théorème fondamental du calcul pour l'intégrale de Lebesgue-Stieltjes. On présente la base de cette théorie dans un premier temps, puis la façon dont cette \(g\)-dérivée généralise d'autres types d'équations différentielles ou aux échelles de temps. On introduit en particulier la notion de \((g \times I_{\mathbb{R}^{N}})\)-différentiabilité et des résultats qui découlent de cette définition. On présente de plus une fonction exponentielle qui permet de résoudre les équations différentielles de Stieltjes linéaires, introduite par Frigon et Pouso [8]. Le but de ce mémoire est de généraliser la méthode des régions-solutions, dont la généralisation s'appellera \(g\)-région-solution, afin de montrer l'existence de solutions aux équations différentielles de Stieltjes. On présente plusieurs exemples de \(g\)-régions admissibles et de \(g\)-régions-solutions, puis des théorèmes d'existence se basant sur cette méthode. On donne de plus des exemples où on applique ces théorèmes. On termine ce mémoire en présentant deux applications des théorèmes d'existence à l'évolution d'une population de cerfs de Virginie ainsi qu'à l'évolution de la tension générée par une diode à effet tunnel résonnant (DTR) dirigée vers une diode laser (DL). / The method of solution-regions has been developed by Frigon [7] in 2018 to show the existence of solutions for first-order ordinary differential equations, where the graph of a solution is inside a solution-region \(R \subset [0, T] \times \mathbb{R}^{N}\). This method is in particular a generalization of the lower and upper solutions and of the solution-tubes. We show this method and some existence results which follow. On the other hand, the Stieltjes derivative, more commonly called \(g\)-derivative, is the fruit of the work of Pouso and Rodríguez [20] in 2014, which unifies classic differential equations, equations on time scales and differential equations with impulses. In particular, it leads to the fundamental theorem of calculus for the Lebesgue-Stieltjes integral. We start by showing the basis of this theory, and then the way this \(g\)-derivative generalizes other types of differential or time scale equations. We introduce in particular the \((g \times I_{\mathbb{R}^{N}})\)-differentiability and results that follow from this definition. Furthermore, we present an exponential function which solves linear Stieltjes differential equations. The goal of this thesis is to generalize the method of solution-regions, where the generalization will be called \(g\)-solution-region, to show the existence of solutions for Stieltjes differential equations. We present multiple examples of \(g\)-admissible regions and \(g\)-solution-regions, then we establish existence theorems based on this method. We also show examples where we apply these theorems. Finally, we end this thesis by showing two applications of the existence theorems to the evolution of a population of white-tailed deer and to the evolution of the voltage generated by a resonant tunneling diode (RTD) to a laser diode (LD).

Das Ziel dieser Arbeit besteht in der Entwicklung und Realisierung einer regelbasierten Ableitungsmethode zur Parametrisierung von flächenbezogenen bodenkundlichen Profil- und Horizontdaten mit beschreibenden und stofflichen Kennwerten. Als Zieldatensatz dient die Bodenübersichtskarte des Landes Brandenburg im Maßstab 1:300 000. Die Arbeit beinhaltet neben der eigentlichen Methodenentwicklung eine eingehende Bewertung der zu parametrisierenden Zieldaten (Flächendatenanalyse) und der genutzten Eingangsdaten (Punktdatenanalyse). Aus der Flächendatenanalyse leitet sich eine Auswahl von 291 Flächenbodenformen ab. Sie bilden das Inventar eines Flächenbodenformenarchivs. Innerhalb der Flächendatenanalyse werden methodischen Kennwerten zur Klärung des inhaltlichen Spektrums dienen (Verbreitungsgrad, Strukturtypen). In der Punktdatenanalyse erfolgt anhand von Mindestdatensatzkriterien die Evaluierung der verschiedenen punktbezogenen Eingangsdatenquellen in ihrer Qualität und Quantität. Innerhalb der Ableitungsmethode kommt der Horizontebene eine zentrale Bedeutung zu. In dieser Ebene erfolgt die Verknüpfung zwischen Eingangs- und Zieldatensatz. Es werden methodische Regeln zur Transformation, Harmonisierung Generalisierung und Aggregierung der Daten in ein einheitliches systematisches Kennzeichnungsprinzip definiert. Unter Nutzung des methodischen Ansatzes der Horizont-Substrat-Kombination lassen für die Flächenbodenformen mittlere Parameterwerte ableiten, die auf Wertekollektiven beruhen. Die ermittelten Parameterwerte werden hinsichtlich ihrer Ableitungssicherheit über ein entworfenes vierstufiges Klassifikationsschema bewertet . Im Ergebnis liegt erstmals eine Methode zur Parametrisierung von flächenbeschreibenden Profil- und Horizontdaten vor, die eine Bewertung der Ableitungssicherheit mit einschließt. Die Methodenergebnisse sind in einem Katalog von parametrisierten Flächenbodenformen (Bodenformenarchiv) dokumentiert. Damit ist ein wesentliche Voraussetzung für die Anwendung von bodenkundlichen Auswertemethoden geschaffen. / The present thesis aims at development and implementation of a rule-based derivation method for a parameterization of area related pedological soil and horizon data with diagnostic and material parameters. A soil map of the state of Brandenburg in a scale of 1:300 000 is used as a target data record. Beside the development of said method, the present thesis includes a detailed evaluation of the target data (analysis of spatial data) to be parameterised, as well as the original data (analysis of point data) which is used. An assortment of 291 different area related soilforms is derived from the analysis of spatial data. They form the inventory of an archive of area related soilforms. Within the analysis of spatial data a set of methodical parameters will clarify the spectrum as regards content (rate of extension, soil patterns). Within the analysis of point data the different point related original data sources are evaluated with respect to their quality and quantity with criteria of minimum data records. The horizon plane is of special importance to the derivation method. The link between original and target datasets takes place in this plane. Methodical rules are defined for the transformation, harmonization, generalization and aggregation of the data into a standard marking principle. Using the methodic approach of the horizon-substratum-combination average parameter-values for the area related soilforms can be derived, wherein the parameter-values are based on value-collectives. The determined parameters are evaluated with respect to their derivative reliability by means of a developed four-stage classification scheme. As a result, for the first time a method for the parameterization of area describing soil and horizon data is available, which includes an evaluation of the average derivative reliability. The results of the method are documented in a catalogue of parameterized area related soil forms (soilform archive). Thus, a substantial precondition is provided for the use of a variety of pedological evaluation methods.

In dieser Arbeit untersuchen wir dualitätsinvariante höher-abgeleitete (alpha') Korrekturen an effektiven Stringtheorien mit niedriger Energie. Wir beschränken uns auf den universellen masselosen Sektor, bestehend aus Graviton, B-Feld und Dilaton, und spezialisieren uns auf Hintergründe mit d abelschen Isometrien, die O(d, d)-Invarianz genießen, und schließen Szenarien wie Kosmologie und Schwarze Löcher als Spezialfälle ein. Es wird erwartet, dass die O(d, d)-Symmetrie für beliebige Ableitungsordnungen erhalten bleibt, eine Tatsache, die Hohm und Zwiebach dazu motivierte, die kosmologische Klassifikation zu finden. Eine solche Konstruktion parametrisiert eine große Klasse rein zeitabhängiger dualitätsinvarianter Theorien für alle Ableitungsordnungen in Form einiger Koeffizienten. Stringtheorien stellen einzelne Punkte in diesem Theorieraum dar, die durch bestimmte Konfigurationen dieser Koeffizienten bestimmt werden. Wir berechnen die ersten Koeffizienten mit zwei Methoden: Verdichtungen und Beta-Funktionsberechnungen aus einer kosmologischen Weltenblattaktion. Anschließend untersuchen wir die Hohm-, Siegel- und Zwiebach-Theorie (HSZ) im kosmologischen Hintergrund, die die masselosen Stringmoden und neuartige massive Felder kodiert. Wir integrieren letztere heraus, um eine effektive Theorie für die masselosen Felder zu erhalten und lesen die entsprechenden Koeffizienten ab. Anschließend behalten wir die massiven Felder bei, finden eine zweifach abgeleitete Neuformulierung der Theorie, bestimmen die alpha'-genauen Friedmann-Gleichungen und erforschen die spannungsfreie Grenze. Wir überprüfen die Klassifikation für FRW-Hintergründe und stellen fest, dass alle Korrekturen trivial sind. Wir erweitern die Klassifikation auf zweidimensionale Hintergründe mit zeitähnlicher Isometrie, einem Raum, der Lösungen für schwarze Löcher zulässt. Wir finden alpha'-deformierte Schwarze Löcher mit und ohne Singularitäten. Letztere entsprechen regulären Kosmologien. / In this thesis we study duality-invariant higher-derivative (alpha') corrections to string low energy effective theories. We restrict to the universal massless sector, consisting of the graviton, B-field and dilaton, and specialize to backgrounds with d abelian isometries, which enjoy O(d, d)-invariance and contain scenarios such as cosmology and black holes as particular cases. The O(d, d)-symmetry is expected to be preserved to arbitrary orders in derivatives, a fact that motivated Hohm and Zwiebach to arrive at the cosmological classification. Such construction parameterizes a large class of purely-time dependent duality-invariant theories to all orders in derivatives in terms of a countable infinite number of coefficients. String theories represent single points in this theory space, determined by specific configurations of these coefficients. We compute the first coefficients by following two methods: compactifications and beta-function computations from a worldsheet action already in cosmological backgrounds. We then study the Hohm, Siegel, and Zwiebach (HSZ) theory in cosmological backgrounds, which encodes the massless string modes plus novel massive fields. We integrate out the latter to arrive at an effective theory for the massless fields and read the corresponding coefficients. We then keep the massive fields, find a two-derivative reformulation of the theory, determine alpha'-exact Friedmann equations and explore the tensionless limit. Coming back to generic duality-invariant theories, we revisit the classification for FRW backgrounds and find that all corrections are trivial. We extend the classification to two-dimensional backgrounds with time-like isometry, a space that admits black-hole solutions. We prove that the dual of a solution with a regular horizon must have a curvature singularity, and find alpha'-deformed black holes with and without singularities. The latter correspond to regular cosmologies.

Thesis / The Companies Bill B61-2008 proposes to introduce appraisal rights into South African law. Appraisal entitles a shareholder to demand payment from the corporate issuer of his shares at a fair cash value in certain instances where major transactions which would change the company's direction have been proposed. It allows a cash exit rather than being coerced into supporting the majority's decision. Arriving at a fair share value is a challenge to appraisal. Presently, under the Personal action, a shareholder who opines that the company's act or omission is unfairly prejudicial or that its affairs are conducted in an unfairly prejudicial manner, may apply to court for an appropriate order. It enables the minority to challenge the majority's decision. Both remedies will be available to dissenting shareholders under the new dispensation and a shareholder must decide which remedy best suits his purposes. Appraisal should be seen as a last resort. / Law / LL.M. (Corporate Law)

固定期信用違約交換(Constant Maturity Credit Default Swap)是移轉固定年期信用違約交換信用價差(CDS Spread)變動風險的信用衍生性金融商品，目前僅Brigo(2005)以及Krekel and Wenzel(2006)探討固定期信用違約交換的評價，也各自推導出近似封閉解，但對於相關參數之估計以及避險參數並沒有涉及，因此本研究將利用歷史資料估計Krekel and Wenzel(2006)評價公式中的參數，讓評價模型更加完備，並求算避險參數，提供發行商與投資人避險資訊。 本文利用目前信用違約交換(Credit Default Swap)市場中各到期日流動性較高的美國Eastman Kodak Company公司債作為標的物，發行一檔固定期信用違約交換，並利用現有市場資訊估計模型中的參數。在避險實證上，本文利用標的物債券信用價差曲線的變動，對固定期信用違約交換契約價值以及五年期及十年期信用違約交換契約價值的影響，建構了一個避險投資組合，使得避險後總投資組合價值波動減少。 / Constant Maturity Credit Default Swap (CMCDS) is one of the credit derivatives, whose function is to circumvent the fluctuating risk of CDS Spread. Brigo (2005) and Krekel and Wenzel (2006) focused on not only probing into the evaluation of the CMCDS but also deriving the approximated closed-form solution in their recent research separately. However, they seldom concern the hedging approach and the estimated parameters of pricing model, which could be major variable in the measurement. This paper is aiming to calculate the history data of hazard rate to estimate the parameters by using the formula from Krekel and Wenzel (2006) and compute the hedging approach of the pricing model to make it become more complete and provide the hedging information for both financial institutions and investors. By using the corporation bond of Eastman Kodak Company which with higher liquidity and various maturity as the main reference asset to issue a CMCDS and utilizing the current available market data to estimate the parameters of the pricing model to evaluate the value of the product, I find that the various credit spread curve of reference bond will influence the value of CDS and CMCDS and try to structure a hedging portfolio to eliminate the fluctuation of the product.