Magister Scientiae - MSc / The aim of this study was to investigate the possible toxicity of the flavonoid-containing plant, Artemisia afra and especially establish the safety of the aqueous extract of this plant after acute and chronic administration to mice and rats respectively. / South Africa

Before market authorization of new medicines, their efficacy and safety are evaluated using randomized controlled trials. While there is no doubt about the scientific value of randomized trials, they are usually conducted in selected populations with questionable generalizability to routine care.  In the digital data revolution era, with healthcare data growing at an unprecedented rate, drug monitoring in routine care is still highly under-utilized. Although many countries have access to data on prescription drugs at the individual level in ambulatory care, such data are often missing for hospitals. This is a growing problem considering the clear trend towards more new and expensive drugs administered in the hospital setting. The aim of this thesis was therefore to develop methods for extracting data on drug use from a hospital-based electronic health record system and further to build and evaluate models for real-time monitoring of effectiveness and safety of new drugs in routine care using data from electronic health records and regional and national health care registers. Using the developed techniques, we were able to demonstrate drug use and health service utilization for inflammatory bowel disease and to evaluate the comparative effectiveness and safety of antiarrhythmic drugs. With a rapidly evolving drug development, it is important to optimize the evaluation of effectiveness, safety and health economic value of new medicines in routine care. We believe that the models described in this thesis could contribute to fulfil this need.

O Micofenolato Mofetil (MMF) é amplamente utilizado em transplantes de órgãos sólidos e tem como seu metabólito ativo o ácido micofenólico (MPA). A alta variabilidade intra e interindividual dos níveis plasmáticos de MPA em pacientes transplantados renais que recebem a mesma dose de MMF, a combinação com diferentes imunossupressores que afetam seu metabolismo e a oscilação destes níveis com o tempo decorrido após o transplante justificam a sua monitorização. Pequenas mudanças na dose de MMF podem comprometer a eficácia terapêutica. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a farmacocinética de duas formulações de MMF. Estudouse um ensaio para a dosagem de ácido micofenólico (MPA) plasmático (EMIT® 2000, Dade Behring) e a seguir, a biodisponibilidade da nova formulação de MMF disponibilizada por Strides Arcolab (MMF-SA), comparativamente ao CellCept® em pacientes transplantados renais estáveis. A metodologia de imunoensaio enzimático (EMIT) apresenta resultados relativamente mais elevados em relação à cromatografia líquida de alta resolução, devido à reação cruzada do metabólito acil glucoronídeo de MPA (AcMPAG) com o anticorpo presente no reagente. O método é capaz de detectar não só o MPA, mas também o seu metabólito ativo AcMPAG, o que pode representar uma vantagem. Comparamos o método EMIT com cromatografia líquida de alta resolução acoplada à espectrometria de massas (LC-MS/MS) e obtivemos r2 = 0,9612. O método apresentou: sensibilidade analítica de 0,02 ± 0,0016ug/mL; limite de detecção de 0,01 ± 0,0015ug/mL; linearidade de 14,58 ± 0,3300ug/mL; coeficientes de variação, intraensaio de 2,14% - 5,09% e interensaio de 4,18% - 5,02%. A estabilidade da amostra foi de 90 dias em temperatura de -20°C. Concluiu-se que a metodologia EMIT para dosagem de MPA é de fácil execução e apresenta boa precisão analítica. Participaram do estudo de biodisponibilidade, vinte e quatro pacientes adultos, transplantados renais, que já recebiam o CellCept® em combinação com Tacrolimus (n = 14), ciclosporina (n= 7) ou sem inibidores de calcineurina (n=3). Todos recebiam prednisona. As duas drogas foram administradas em esquema cruzado, com intervalo de uma semana entre as farmacocinéticas. Neste intervalo, os pacientes continuaram recebendo CellCept®. Foram analisadas as curvas farmacocinéticas de 12 horas para cada uma das duas formulações, nas mesmas doses equimolares. As médias ± SE das medidas de concentração máxima (Cmax) e da área sob a curva (AUC), para CellCept®, não foram estatisticamente diferentes das médias ± SE para MMF-SA (11,29 ± 1,35ug/mL versus 11,05 ± 1,08ug/mL e 49,11 ± 5,15ug.h/mL versus 47,59 ± 3,99 ug.h/mL), respectivamente. Da mesma forma, o intervalo de confiança 90% de MMF-SA / CellCept® para Cmax (93,57% - 121,73%) e para AUC 0-12h (93,75% - 108,90%) ficaram dentro do intervalo de bioequivalência (80% - 125%). Concluímos que CellCept® pode ser substituído com segurança pela formulação MMF-SA genérica em pacientes transplantados renais estáveis. / Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) is largely used in solid organ transplantation. Mycophenolic Acid (MPA) is the active metabolite of MMF. The high intra and interpatients variability of the MPA plasma levels in transplant recipients under the same dose of MMF, the association with immunosuppressant drugs that change the MPA metabolism and pharmacokinetic parameters over time may cause impact in the optimal dose of MMF. The therapeutic monitoring of MPA may improve the efficacy and safety. The aim of this study was to: 1 -to validate the EMIT assay for MPA monitoring and 2: to assess the bioavailability of two MMF formulations. The performance of the EMIT® 2000 Dade Behring Mycophenolic acid enzimatic immunoassay was evaluated. There was a high correlation between the LC-MS/MS and EMIT (r2 = 0.9612). Because of the cross-reactivity of the antibody used in the EMIT assay with the active acyl glucuronide metabolite (AcMPAG), the EMIT concentrations are higher than those from high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).The analytic sensitivity was 0.02 ± 0.0016ug/mL; detection limit 0.01 ± 0.0015ug/mL; linearity 14.58 ± 0.3300ug/mL. The CV of within-day precision was 2.14% - 5.09% and the CV of between-days precision was 4.18% - 5.02%. The sample stability was 90 days at - 20°C. The EMIT assay is easily performed and fulfills all the requirements for an assay. We studied the MMF formulation from Strides Arcolab (MMF-SA) and CellCept® in twenty-four adult, renal transplanted patients, receiving MMF (CellCept®), before the bioavailability study, combined with tacrolimus (n = 14), cyclosporine (n = 7) or without CNI (n = 3). All patients received prednisone. They had a 12 hours pharmacokinetics (PK) of total MPA measured after the same equimolar doses for the two formulations. The PK analysis revealed two mean PK curves that overlaid over each other. Mean ± SE of maximum concentration (Cmax) and area under the time-concentration curve (AUC) of CellCept® were not statistically different from the generic MMF-SA (11.29 ± 1.35 ug/mL vs 11.05 ± 1.05 ug/mL and 49.11 ± 5.15 ug.h/mL vs 47.59 ± 3.99 ug.h/mL, respectively). In the same way the MMF-SA/CellCept® 90% confidence interval for both: Cmax (93.57% -121.73%) and AUC0-12h (93.75% - 108.90%) was within the bioequivalence interval (80%-125%). In renal transplanted patients, CellCept® can be switched by the generic MMF formulation.

Introdução: O Programa Global de Avaliação de Risco Informatizado - PAISM, através de um questionário com 91 perguntas, permite prever o risco de 9 grupos importantes de doenças, que afetam as mulheres. O Programa examinou 15.538 mulheres determinando o risco para: câncer de mama, endométrio, colo de útero, ovário e pulmão; osteoporose; endometriose; DST/AIDS e dislipidemias e foram classificadas em baixo, médio e alto risco para estas doenças. Baseado no risco de avaliação, o programa ofereceu para as mulheres conselho individualizado com relação a hábitos e comportamentos. Objetivos: Avaliar os fatores sócio-demográficos, de acordo com diferentes grupos de risco para cada doença; o estilo e hábitos de vida para os riscos de determinadas doenças e o conhecimento da importância da educação para a saúde, o desempenho e a aceitação do programa. Pacientes e Métodos: Foram estudadas retrospectivamente 320 mulheres selecionadas, sem critérios previamente estabelecidos apenas com a condição de ter participado do Programa Global de Avaliação de Risco Informatizado e não ter câncer. A coleta de dados foi realizada a partir de um outro questionário, constituído de 30 questões que foi aplicado no Ambulatório de Ginecologia do Hospital das Clínicas da FMUSP e em ações existentes nas comunidades carentes da região da Cidade de São Paulo. Esta pesquisa foi delineada inicialmente com base em um modelo conceitual-operativo de natureza quantitativa e, posteriormente, qualitativa. Resultados e conclusões: Existem fatores sócio-demográficos e as variáveis atitudinais, que demonstram o estilo de vida da paciente, também, traçam os grupos de alto risco e colaboram para a observação de determinadas doenças. O nível de conscientização das entrevistadas em relação a algumas variáveis de risco é alto, no entanto, essa conscientização nem sempre se reflete em atitudes e esses fatores acabam influenciando o alto risco nas doenças pesquisadas. As entrevistadas afirmam: o programa é bom, o questionário de avaliação é fácil, a interpretação do risco e as orientações de qualidade de vida são muito boas, demonstrando a importância da educação para a saúde. / Introduction: The Global Program of Evaluation of Informed Risks - GPEIR, through one questionnaire with 91 questions, allows foresee the risk of 9 important groups of disease, which affects women. The Program examined 15.538 women determining the risk to: breast cancer, endometrium, uterus col, ovarian and lung; osteoporosis, endometriosis; DST/AIDS and dislipidemias and were classified below, medium and high risk to those illnesses. Based on the risk of the evaluation, this program offered to women individual advises related to habits and behavior. Objectives: Evaluate the socio-demographic factors, in agreement with different groups of risks to each illness; the stile and habits of life to risks of determined illness and the knowledge of the importance of education to healthy, development and acceptation of the program. Patients and methods: 320 women selected had been studied, without criteria established only with the condition of these women have participated in the Global Program of Evaluation of Informed Risks and don\'t have cancer. The collects of data was realized on base of another questionnaire, with 30 questions that were applied in the \"Ambulatório de Ginecologia do Hospital das Clínicas da FMUSP\" and in actions in devoid communities in São Paulo. This research was delineated initially with base on a conceptual-operative model of nature quantity and lately, quality. Results and conclusion: there are socio-demographic factors and variable attitudinal, which demonstrate the stile of life of patients, also, trace the groups of high risk and collaborate to observe determined illness. The level of awareness of the interviewed in relation to some variable of risk is high, however, this awareness nor always reflects in attitudes and this factors finish influencing a high risk on the illness that have been researched. The interviewed affirm: the program is good, the questionnaire is easy, the interpretation of risk and orientations of quality of life are very good, showing the importance of education to healthy.

Introdução: Eventos adversos a medicamentos (EAM) representam um importante problema de saúde pública, sendo associados à morbimortalidade, maior taxa de permanência hospitalar e elevação de custos. Os idosos e os pacientes de unidade de terapia intensiva (UTI) são grupos de risco para a ocorrência desses eventos. O uso de rastreadores, que representam situações indicativas de potenciais EAM, simplifica a detecção de EAM por meio do screening sistemático de prontuários, possibilitando a mensuração da taxa dessas adversidades continuamente e permitindo avançar na prática de segurança do paciente crítico. Objetivo: Analisar os eventos adversos a medicamentos e fatores associados em pacientes idosos de UTI. Método: Coorte retrospectiva conduzida com idosos internados em UTI do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo. A amostra consecutiva foi composta por prontuários de idosos, hospitalizados por no mínimo 24 horas para tratamento clínico ou cirúrgico e que tenham recebido pelo menos um medicamento. Os pacientes foram acompanhados da internação até a saída da UTI por alta ou óbito. Para a identificação dos EAM utilizou-se o instrumento do Institute for Healthcare Improvement (IHI) adaptado para a realidade local, que inclui rastreadores medicamentosos, bioquímicos e clínicos. Foram coletadas variáveis demográfico-clínicas, relativas ao regime terapêutico, exames laboratoriais, intervenções durante a internação e sinais/sintomas clínicos. A variável dependente foi a ocorrência de EAM. Os dados foram analisados por meio dos testes Qui-quadrado, Exato de Fisher, Correlação de Pearson e regressão logística multivariada, com significância de p0,05. Resultados: A incidência de pacientes com EAM foi 22,3% e o número de EAM por 100 pacientes foi 32,3, média de 1,4 EAM. A amostra foi composta predominantemente por homens (54,6%), idosos jovens (68,8%), internados para procedimentos clínicos (67,4%) e sujeitos a polifarmácia (70,6%). Sangramento (21,7%), injúria renal aguda (20%), hipotensão (18,3%), náusea/vômito (15%) e hipoglicemia (13,3%) foram os EAM mais frequentes. Identificou-se correlação positiva entre EAM e as variáveis comorbidades (r=0,189), tempo de internação (r=0,288) e número de medicamentos prescritos (r=0,282). Os fatores de risco para EAM em UTI foram ventilação mecânica (OR= 2,614; IC95% 1,393 4,906; p= 0,003), injúria renal aguda (OR= 3,794; IC95% 1,688 8,527; p=0,001) e diabetes mellitus (OR= 3,280; IC 95% 1,703 6,315; p= 0,000). Conclusão: A ocorrência dos EAM mostrou-se correlacionada positivamente com atributos que são muito característicos de idosos admitidos em UTI, aspecto que pode servir de alerta aos profissionais que realizam o monitoramento desses eventos. / Introduction: Adverse drug events (ADE) represent an important public health problem, being associated with morbidity and mortality, a higher hospital stay rate and higher costs. The elderly and intensive care patients (ICU) are at risk groups for the occurrence of these events. The use of trackers, which represent situations indicative of potential ADE, simplifies the detection of ADE through the systematic screening of medical records, making it possible to measure the rate of these adversities continuously and to advance in the practice of critical patient safety. Objective: To analyze adverse drug events and associated factors in elderly ICU patients. Method: Retrospective cohort conducted with elderly patients admitted to ICU at Hospital das Clínicas, Medical School, University of São Paulo. The consecutive sample consisted of records of the elderly, hospitalized for at least 24 hours for clinical or surgical treatment and who received at least one medication. Patients were followed up for ICU discharge or discharge. The Institute for Healthcare Improvement (IHI) instrument adapted to the local reality, which includes drug, biochemical and clinical trackers, was used to identify the ADE. Demographic and clinical variables related to the therapeutic regimen and laboratory tests, therapeutic interventions during hospitalization, clinical signs and symptoms were collected. The dependent variable was the occurrence of ADE. Data were analyzed using the Chi-square test, Fisher\'s exact test, Pearson\'s correlation and multivariate logistic regression, with significance of p0.05. Results: The incidence of ADE patients was 22.3% and the number of ADE per 100 patients was 32.3, a mean of 1.4 ADE. Men (54.6%), young adults (68.8%), hospitalized for clinical procedures (67.4%) and polypharmacy (70.6%). Bleeding (21.7%), acute renal injury (20%), hypotension (18.3%), nausea / vomiting (15%) and hypoglycaemia (13.3%) were the most frequent events. A positive correlation between EAM and comorbidities (r = 0.189), length of hospital stay (r = 0.288), and number of drugs prescribed (r=0.282) were identified. The risk factors for EAM in the ICU were mechanical ventilation (OR= 2,614; IC95%, 1,393 4,906; p= 0,003), acute renal injury (OR= 3,794; IC95% 1,688 8,527; p=0,001) and diabetes mellitus (OR= 3,280; IC 95% 1,703 6, 315; p= 0,000). Conclusion: The occurrence of ADE was positively correlated with attributes that are very characteristic of the elderly admitted to the ICU, an aspect that can serve as an alert to the professionals who perform the monitoring of these events.

Para avaliar a exposição ao ácido micofenólico (MPA) na fase inicial pós-transplante renal, receptores foram destinados para receber tacrolimo (n=33) ou ciclosporina (n=19, controle) com MMF. Foram feitas coletas de farmacocinética (AUC) do inibidor de calcineurina e MPA nos dias 7, 14, 30, 60 e 180 pós-transplante. Dos dias 14-180, a MPA-AUC foi mais elevada no grupo tacrolimo devido a um maior segundo pico de MPA. Com doses fixas de MMF, uma grande porcentagem de curvas ficou abaixo da faixa terapêutica. No dia 7, a equação que emprega a concentração pré-dose (C0) e na segunda hora (C2) foi a mais precisa para estimar AUC. Após o dia 7, a equação que utiliza C2 foi a mais precisa. A exposição ao MPA nos primeiros seis meses após transplante renal é maior sob tacrolimo do que ciclosporina. Entretanto, para qualquer inibidor de calcineurina empregado com MMF, uma equação que emprega C0 e C2 (dia 7) e C2 isoladamente (após o dia 7), permite a monitoração de MPA com grande precisão / To evaluate the exposure to mycophenolic acid (MPA) early after renal transplantation, recipients were allocated to tacrolimus (n = 33) or Neoral (n =19, control) plus MMF. Pharmacokinetic curves (AUC) of calcineurin inhibitor and MPA were drawn on days 7, 14, 30, 60 and 180 post-transplant. From days 14-180, MPA-AUC was higher in tacrolimus group due to a higher second MPA peak. With fixed MMF doses, a great amount of curves fell below the proposed therapeutic range. On day 7, the equation that uses pre-dose (C0) and second-hour (C2) concentrations was the most accurate. After day 7, the equation that uses C2 alone was the most accurate. Exposure to MPA during the first six months after transplantation is higher under tacrolimus than Neoral. Nevertheless, despite the calcineurin inhibitor associated with MMF, an equation that uses C0 and C2 up to day 7 and C2 thereafter allows precise MPA monitoring

Introdução: Em pacientes críticos, como os grandes queimados, todos os parâmetros farmacocinéticos (absorção, distribuição, metabolismo e excreção) de muitas classes de drogas, incluindo antimicrobianos, estão alterados. Devido à forte associação entre a terapia antimicrobiana adequada em pacientes com queimaduras e mortalidade, intervenções como o monitoramento terapêutico de drogas podem ser uteis para otimizar a concentração sérica desses agentes em diferentes estágios do estado hiperdinâmico. Portanto, é possível melhorar desfecho clínico e sobrevivência além de reduzir o desenvolvimento de resistência. O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar o impacto em mortalidade de uma estratégia de ajuste de dose de acordo com o monitoramento terapêutico e modelagem farmacocinética/farmacodinâmica em pacientes de uma Unidade de Terapia Intensiva (UTI) para Queimados. Métodos: Um estudo comparativo, retrospectivo, foi conduzido entre pacientes admitidos com pneumonia, infecção em queimadura, infecção de corrente sanguínea e/ou infecção do trato urinário associados à assistência à saúde em uma UTI para Queimados do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo (HC-FMUSP). Estes pacientes foram divididos em dois grupos: aqueles admitidos de maio de 2005 a outubro de 2008 que receberam antibioticoterapia em regime de dose convencional proposto pelo Grupo de Controle de Infecção Hospitalar do HC-FMUSP e aqueles admitidos de novembro de 2008 a junho de 2011 que receberam terapia antimicrobiana com dose ajustada de acordo com o monitoramento plasmático e modelagem farmacocinética. Características gerais dos dois grupos foram analisadas e desfechos clínicos (melhora dos sinais e sintomas da infecção), mortalidade em 14 dias e mortalidade hospitalar foram comparados. Resultados: 63 pacientes admitidos na UTI de Queimados apresentaram os critérios de inclusão para o grupo de tratamento convencional e 77 para o grupo de tratamento monitorado. Comparando dois grupos homogêneos em suas características gerais, houve diferenças quanto ao número de desbridamentos realizados e história de alcoolismo e uso de drogas ilícitas, mais frequentes no grupo de tratamento monitorado. Melhora clínica ocorreu em 56% dos pacientes sob regime monitorado e a mortalidade hospitalar foi similar entre os grupos. Pertencer a um dos grupos de tratamento não afetou o prognóstico. Na análise multivariada final, variáveis significativamente associadas com mortalidade hospitalar foram superfície corporal queimada maior que 30%, idade mais avançada e sexo masculino. Conclusão: Nosso estudo demonstrou que a estratégia de monitoramento terapêutico de antimicrobianos não alterou prognóstico de pacientes queimados. Acreditamos que são necessários mais estudos para embasar esta estratégia / Introduction: In critical patients, such as burn patients, pharmacokinetic parameters (absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion) of many classes of drugs, including antibiotics, are altered. The aim of this study was to compare two groups of burned patients under treatment for healthcare associated infections with and without therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) based on PK/PD modeling. Methods: A comparative study was conducted with patients with healthcare-associated pneumonia, burn infection, bloodstream infection and urinary tract infection in the Burn Intensive Care Unit (ICU) of a tertiary-care hospital. These patients were divided into two groups: 1) those admitted from May 2005 to October 2008 who received conventional antimicrobial dose regimen; and 2) those admitted from November 2008 to June, 2011 who received antibiotics with doses adjusted according to plasma monitoring and pharmacokinetics modeling. General characteristics of the groups were analyzed and clinical outcomes, 14-day and in-hospital mortality. Results: 63 patients formed the conventional treatment group and 77 the monitored treatment group. The groups were very homogeneous. Improvement occurred in 56% of the patients under monitored treatment and the in-hospital mortality was similar between groups. In the final multivariate models, variables significantly associated with in-hospital mortality were total burn surface area (TBSA) > 30%, older age and male sex. Treatment group did not affect the prognosis. Conclusions: TDM for antimicrobial treatment did not alter the prognosis of burn patients. More trials are needed to support the use of TDM to optimize treatment in burn patients

Introdução: O Programa Global de Avaliação de Risco Informatizado - PAISM, através de um questionário com 91 perguntas, permite prever o risco de 9 grupos importantes de doenças, que afetam as mulheres. O Programa examinou 15.538 mulheres determinando o risco para: câncer de mama, endométrio, colo de útero, ovário e pulmão; osteoporose; endometriose; DST/AIDS e dislipidemias e foram classificadas em baixo, médio e alto risco para estas doenças. Baseado no risco de avaliação, o programa ofereceu para as mulheres conselho individualizado com relação a hábitos e comportamentos. Objetivos: Avaliar os fatores sócio-demográficos, de acordo com diferentes grupos de risco para cada doença; o estilo e hábitos de vida para os riscos de determinadas doenças e o conhecimento da importância da educação para a saúde, o desempenho e a aceitação do programa. Pacientes e Métodos: Foram estudadas retrospectivamente 320 mulheres selecionadas, sem critérios previamente estabelecidos apenas com a condição de ter participado do Programa Global de Avaliação de Risco Informatizado e não ter câncer. A coleta de dados foi realizada a partir de um outro questionário, constituído de 30 questões que foi aplicado no Ambulatório de Ginecologia do Hospital das Clínicas da FMUSP e em ações existentes nas comunidades carentes da região da Cidade de São Paulo. Esta pesquisa foi delineada inicialmente com base em um modelo conceitual-operativo de natureza quantitativa e, posteriormente, qualitativa. Resultados e conclusões: Existem fatores sócio-demográficos e as variáveis atitudinais, que demonstram o estilo de vida da paciente, também, traçam os grupos de alto risco e colaboram para a observação de determinadas doenças. O nível de conscientização das entrevistadas em relação a algumas variáveis de risco é alto, no entanto, essa conscientização nem sempre se reflete em atitudes e esses fatores acabam influenciando o alto risco nas doenças pesquisadas. As entrevistadas afirmam: o programa é bom, o questionário de avaliação é fácil, a interpretação do risco e as orientações de qualidade de vida são muito boas, demonstrando a importância da educação para a saúde. / Introduction: The Global Program of Evaluation of Informed Risks - GPEIR, through one questionnaire with 91 questions, allows foresee the risk of 9 important groups of disease, which affects women. The Program examined 15.538 women determining the risk to: breast cancer, endometrium, uterus col, ovarian and lung; osteoporosis, endometriosis; DST/AIDS and dislipidemias and were classified below, medium and high risk to those illnesses. Based on the risk of the evaluation, this program offered to women individual advises related to habits and behavior. Objectives: Evaluate the socio-demographic factors, in agreement with different groups of risks to each illness; the stile and habits of life to risks of determined illness and the knowledge of the importance of education to healthy, development and acceptation of the program. Patients and methods: 320 women selected had been studied, without criteria established only with the condition of these women have participated in the Global Program of Evaluation of Informed Risks and don\'t have cancer. The collects of data was realized on base of another questionnaire, with 30 questions that were applied in the \"Ambulatório de Ginecologia do Hospital das Clínicas da FMUSP\" and in actions in devoid communities in São Paulo. This research was delineated initially with base on a conceptual-operative model of nature quantity and lately, quality. Results and conclusion: there are socio-demographic factors and variable attitudinal, which demonstrate the stile of life of patients, also, trace the groups of high risk and collaborate to observe determined illness. The level of awareness of the interviewed in relation to some variable of risk is high, however, this awareness nor always reflects in attitudes and this factors finish influencing a high risk on the illness that have been researched. The interviewed affirm: the program is good, the questionnaire is easy, the interpretation of risk and orientations of quality of life are very good, showing the importance of education to healthy.

Within the field of depression the “monoamine hypothesis” has been the leading theory to explain the biological basis of depression. This theory proposes that the biological basis of depression is due to a deficiency in one or more of three key neurotransmitter systems, namely noradrenaline, dopamine and serotonin which are thought to mediate the therapeutic actions of virtually every known antidepressant agent. Citalopram is a selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) used for the treatment of depression and anxiety disorders. Citalopram is a racemic compound, in other words composed of a 50:50 mixture of two enantiomers (S-(+)-citalopram and R-(-)-citalopram) and with one of the enantiomers (S-(+)-citalopram) accounting for the inhibitory effect. At the time of introduction of citalopram the physician needed a therapeutic drug monitoring service to identify patients with interactions, compliance problems and for handling questions concerning polymorphic enzymes and drug metabolism. An achiral analytical separation method based on solid-phase extraction followed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was developed for routine therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) of citalopram and its two main demethylated metabolites. As the data available on citalopram were from achiral concentration determinations and to be able to further investigate citalopram enantiomers effects and distribution, a chiral method for separation of the enantiomers of citalopram and its demethylated metabolites was established. The advances within chiral separation techniques have made measurement of the concentrations of the individual enantiomers in biological fluids possible. The process behind enantioselective separation is however not fully understood and the mechanism behind the separation can be further scrutinized by the use of multivariate methods. A study of the optimization and characterization of the separation of the enantiomers of citalopram, desmethylcitalopram and didesmethylcitalopram on an acetylated ß-cyclodextrin column, by use of two different chemometric programs - response surface modelling and sequential optimization was performed. Sequential optimization can be a quicker mean of optimizing a chromatographic separation; response surface modelling, in addition to enabling optimization of the chromatographic process, also serves as a tool for learning more about the separation mechanism. Studies of the antidepressant effect and pharmacokinetics of citalopram have been performed in adults, but the effects on children and adolescents have only been studied to a minor extent, despite the increasing use of citalopram in these age groups. A study was initiated to investigate adolescents treated for depression, with respect to the steady-state plasma concentrations of the enantiomers of citalopram and its demethylated metabolites. The ratios between the S- and R-enantiomers of citalopram and didesmethylcitalopram were in agreement with studies involving older patients. The concentrations of the S-(+)- and R-(-) enantiomers of citalopram and desmethylcitalopram were also in agreement with values from earlier studies. The results indicate that the use of oral contraceptives may have some influence on the metabolism of citalopram. This might be because of an interaction of the contraceptive hormones with the polymorphic CYP2C19 enzyme. Even though the SSRIs are considered less toxic compared with older monoamine-active drugs like the tricyclic/tetracyclic antidepressants, the risk of developing serious side effects such as ECG abnormalities and convulsions has been seen for citalopram, when larger doses have been ingested. Furthermore, fatal overdoses have been reported where citalopram alone was the cause of death. Data on the toxicity of each of the enantiomers in humans have not been reported and no data on blood levels of the enantiomers in cases of intoxication have been presented. An investigation was initiated on forensic autopsy cases where citalopram had been found at the routine screening and these cases were further analysed with enantioselective analysis to determine the blood concentrations of the enantiomers of citalopram and metabolites. Furthermore the genotyping regarding the polymorphic enzymes CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 were performed. In 53 autopsy cases, we found increasing S/R ratios with increasing concentrations of citalopram. We found also that high citalopram S/R ratio were associated with high parent drug to metabolite ratio and may be an indicator of recent intake. Only 3.8 % were found to be poor metabolizers regarding CYP2D6 and for CYP2C19 no poor metabolizer was found. Enantioselective analysis of citalopram and its metabolites can provide valuable information about the time that has elapsed between intake and death. Genotyping can be of help in specific cases but the possibility of pharmacokinetic interactions is apparently a far greater problem than genetic enzyme deficiency. / On the day of the public defence the status of article IV was: Submitted.

For patients afflicted with symptoms of anxiety and insomnia, benzodiazepines are generally a safe and effective short-term pharmacological treatment option. Although considered safer than other sedative-hypnotic medications, substantial concern exists regarding the addictive nature and abuse potential of benzodiazepines along with potentially inappropriate prescribing and utilization in clinically vulnerable populations. These medication misadventures can have a significant impact on public health. Examples of medication misadventures as they pertain to benzodiazepines include the prescribing and use in clinically vulnerable populations for whom they are contraindicated or their efficacy has not been evaluated, the development of tolerance or addiction, abuse of the medication, and the manifestation of negative health outcomes including cognitive impairment, withdrawal symptoms upon discontinuation, or the reoccurrence of a preexisting substance use disorder. In order to better understand medication misadventures associated with benzodiazepines retrospective analyses using populations extracted from large health claims databases are employed. To understand how benzodiazepine use may lead to adverse events causing patient harm, the risk of exacerbations in benzodiazepine users diagnosed with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease was estimated. The inherent risk of benzodiazepine addiction and abuse was estimated in an HIV-infected population, a population with a high prevalence of substance use disorders. This risk was estimated by first determining whether HIV-infected individuals are more likely to have any benzodiazepine use compared to their uninfected counterparts, and secondly, by examining the association between HIV-infection and potentially problematic benzodiazepine use. Finally, in an effort to mitigate unexpected and undesirable consequences to public health associated with the prescription drug abuse epidemic in the US, states have implemented prescription drug monitoring programs (PDMPs) to track the prescribing and dispensing of controlled substance medications. The effect of these programs on benzodiazepine dispensing is evaluated on a state and national level. Findings will provide healthcare professionals a better understanding regarding the risk of medication misadventures involving benzodiazepines when evaluating their appropriateness in patients with anxiety, depression, and insomnia. Additionally, policymakers will understand the implications of PDMPs on the dispensing of benzodiazepines as they become a more widely used tool to combat prescription drug abuse and diversion.