Estudos com eletrodos modificados foram conduzidos utilizando dois sistemas porfirínicos supramoleculares diferentes. O primeiro foi baseado na modificação de eletrodo de carbono vítreo com uma porfirina de níquel tetrarrutenada, [NiIITPyP{RuII(bipy)2Cl}4]4+. A modificação do eletrodo foi realizada por meio de sucessivos ciclos voltamétricos em meio alcalino (pH 13), gerando um eletrodo com característica similar a eletrodos modificados com α-Ni(OH)2. A caracterização química do filme formado foi realizada através das técnicas de voltametria cíclica, ressonância paramagnética eletrônica, espectroscopia eletrônica por reflectância e espectroscopia Raman com ensaio espectro-eletroquímico. Os resultados sugerem a formação de um polímero de coordenação, [µ-O2-NiIITPyP{RuII(bipy)2Cl}4]n, composto por subunidades porfirínicas ligadas entre si por pontes µ-peroxo axialmente coordenadas aos átomos de níquel (Ni-O-O-Ni). O crescimento do filme apresentou dependência da alcalinidade do meio pela formação do precursor octaédrico [Ni(OH)2TRPyP]2+ em solução, pela coordenação de OH- nas posições axiais do átomo de níquel. O processo de eletropolimerização indicou a participação de radical hidroxil, gerado por oxidação eletrocatalítica da água nos sítios periféricos da porfirina contendo o complexo de rutênio. O mesmo eletrodo foi aplicado como sensor eletroquímico para análise amperométrica de ácido fólico em comprimidos farmacêuticos. O sensor foi associado a um sistema de Batch Injection Analysis (BIA) alcançando considerável rapidez e baixo limite de detecção. Para as análises das amostras também foi proposto um método para a remoção da lactose, que agia como interferente. O segundo estudo envolveu a modificação de eletrodos de carbono vítreo com diferentes hemoglobinas, naturais (HbA0, HbA2 e HbS) e sintéticas (Hb-PEG5K2, αα-Hb-PEG5K2 e BT-PEG5K4), para a avaliação da eficiência na redução eletrocatalítica de nitrito mediada por FeI-heme. Os filmes foram produzidos pela mistura de soluções das hemoglobinas com brometo de didodecildimetiltrimetilamônio (DDAB), aplicados nas superfícies com consecutiva evaporação, formando filmes estáveis. Os valores de potencial redox para os processos do grupo heme e a sua associação com a disponibilidade do grupo na proteína foram avaliados por voltametria cíclica. Os valores das constantes de velocidade, k, para redução de nitrito foram obtidos por cronoamperometria em -1,1 V (vs Ag/AgCl(KCl 3M)) que foram utilizados para estudo comparativo entre as espécies sintéticas para eventual aplicação clínica. / Studies with modified electrodos were conducted using two different supramolecular porphyrin systems. The first one was based on the modification of glassy carbon electrode with a tetraruthenated nickel porphyrin, [NiIITPyP{RuII(bipy)2Cl}4]4+. The electrode modification was carried out through successive voltemmetric cycles in alkaline media (pH 13), generating an electrode with feature similar to α-Ni(OH)2 modified electrodes. The chemical characterization of this film was performed by cyclic voltammetry, electronic paramagnetic resonance, reflectance electronic spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy with spectroelectrochemistry assay. The results suggested the formation of a coordination polymer, [µ-O2-NiIITPyP{RuII(bipy)2Cl}4]n, composed by porphyrin subunits linked by µ-peroxo bridges axially coordinated to nickel atoms (Ni-O-O-Ni). The film growth showed dependence of the alkaline media by the formation of octahedral precursor [Ni(OH)2TRPyP]2+ in solution by way of axial coordination of OH- to the nickel atoms. The electropolymerization process showed to have a contribution from hydroxyl radicals, generated by electrocatalytic oxidation of water on the peripheral sites containing the ruthenium complexes. The same electrode was applied as an electrochemical sensor for amperometric analysis of folic acid in pharmaceutical tablets. The sensor was associated to a Bath Injection Analysis (BIA) system, achieving good sampling frequency and low detection limit. For the samples analysis, it was also proposed a method for lactose removal. The second study comprises the modification of glassy carbon electrodes with different hemoglobin species, of natural occurrence (HbA0, HbA2 e HbS) and synthetics (Hb-PEG5K2, αα-Hb-PEG5K2 e BT-PEG5K4) for evaluation of efficiency on electrocatalytic reduction of nitrite mediated by FeI-heme. The films were produced by mixing solutions of the hemoglobins with didecyldimethylammonium bromide (DDAB), applied on the surfaces with following solvent evaporation, forming stable films. The redox potential values for the heme group processes and the heme availability in the protein were evaluated by cyclic voltammetry. The reaction rate constants, k, for nitrite reduction were obtained by chronoamperometry at -1,1 V, which were used for comparative study between the synthetic species for further clinical applications.

"The need for an efficient, non-polluting power source for vehicles in urban environments has resulted in increased attention to the option of fuel cell powered vehicles of high efficiency and low emissions. Of various fuel cell systems considered, the proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell technology seems to be the most suitable one for the terrestrial transportation applications. This is thanks to its low temperature of operation (hence, fast cold start), and a combination of high power density and high energy conversion efficiency. Besides automobile and stationary applications (distributed power for homes, office buildings, and as back-up for critical applications such as hospitals and credit card centers), future consumer electronics also demands compact long-lasting sources of power, and fuel cell is a promising candidate in these applications. The goal of a cost effective and high performance fuel cell has resulted in very active multidisciplinary research. Although significant progress has been made on PEM fuel cells over the last twenty years, further progress in fuel cell research is still needed before the commercially viable fuel cell utilization in transportation, potable and stationary applications. A chief goal among others is the design of PEM fuel cells that can operate with impure hydrogen containing traces of CO, which has been the objective of this research. Standard Pt and PtRu anode catalyst has been studied systematically under practical fuel cell conditions, in an attempt to understand the mechanism and kinetics of H2/CO electrooxidation on these noble metal catalysts. In the study of Pt as anode catalyst, it was found that the fuel cell performance was strongly affected by the anode flow rate and cathode oxygen pressure. A CO electrooxidation kinetic model was developed taking into account the CO inventory in the anode, which can successfully simulate the experimental results. It was found that there is finite CO electrooxidation even on Pt anode with H2/CO as anode feed. Thus, anode overpotential and outlet CO concentration is a function of anode inlet flow rate at a constant current density. The on-line monitoring of CO concentration in PEM fuel cell anode exit has proved that the ~{!0~}ligand mechanism~{!1~} and ~{!0~}bifunctional mechanism~{!1~} coexist as the CO tolerance mechanisms for PtRu anode catalyst. For PtRu anode catalyst, sustained potential oscillations were observed when the fuel cell was operated at constant current density with H2/CO as anode feed. Temperature was found to be the key bifurcation parameter besides current density and the anode flow rate for the onset of potential oscillations. The anode kinetic model was extended further to unsteady state which can reasonably reproduce and adequately explain the oscillatory phenomenon. The potential oscillations are due to the coupling of anode electrooxidation of H2 and CO on PtRu alloy surface, on which OHad can be formed more facile, preferably on top of Ru atoms at lower overpotentials. One parameter bifurcation and local linear stability analysis have shown that the bifurcation experienced during the variation of fuel cell temperature is a Hopf bifurcation, which leads to stable potential oscillations when the fuel cell is set at constant current density. It was further found that a PEM fuel cell operated in an autonomous oscillatory state produces higher time-averaged cell voltage and power density as compared to the stable steady-state operation, which may be useful for developing an operational strategy for improved management of power output in PEM fuel cells with the presence of CO in anode feed. Finally, an Electrochemical Preferential Oxidation (ECPrOx) process is proposed to replace the conventional PrOx for cleaning CO from reformate gas, which can selectively oxidized CO electrochemically while generating supplemental electrical power without wasting hydrogen."

Certaines métalloenzymes catalysent l’oxydation de petites molécules organiques, dans des conditions douces (par activation du dioxygène à température et pression ambiante). Ce travail a pour but d’améliorer l’utilisation et l’efficacité catalytique des complexes de fer mimant cette activité.D’abord, par fonctionnalisation du ligand, un des complexes les plus efficaces pour catalyser l’oxydation de substrats aromatiques par H2O2, a pu être greffé dans des mésopores de silice. Ce matériau est utilisé comme support de catalyseur, en raison de sa grande surface spécifique et de sa chimie de surface versatile. Par ailleurs, la méthode de synthèse permet de structurer la taille des cavités formées, à l’aide d’un surfactant utilisé comme modèle. Le contrôle du nombre de sites catalytiques sur la surface est rendu possible par la procédure qui exploite le concept du pochoir moléculaire. Le confinement du catalyseur dans les pores pourrait être mis à profit pour former des produits à haute valeur ajoutée. En parallèle, ce complexe a aussi été greffé sur des billes de silices, un matériau moins élaboré pouvant être utilisé pour la dégradation de polluants. L’élaboration de ce type de catalyseurs supportés a nécessité de nombreuses caractérisations : analyses élémentaires, spectroscopies RMN, IR, XPS, UV-vis, RPE, isotherme d’adsorption d’azote, ATG, DRX sur poudre. Différentes méthodes de greffage ont été ainsi développées, et leur efficacité a été comparée. L’activité en catalyse d’oxydation de ces différents systèmes a aussi été évaluée.Concernant le développement des catalyseurs homogènes, le renforcement des positions  des pyridines du ligand a permis l’obtention de nouveaux complexes de fer, possédant une meilleure stabilité pour réaliser des réactions catalytiques en milieu homogène et des propriétés structurales, spectroscopiques, chimiques et catalytiques analogues aux complexes de la même famille.Enfin, un autre complexe de fer a été mis en jeu dans un procédé électrochimique utilisant le dioxygène en présence de protons pour catalyser l’hydroxylation de substrats aromatiques. / Some metalloenzymes catalyze oxidation of small organic molecules in mild conditions (via dioxygen activation at ambient temperature and pressure). This work aims to improve the use and catalytic efficiency of some of the iron complexes mimicking this activity.First, by ligand functionalization, one of the most efficient complexes catalyzing aromatic substrates oxidation by H2O2, was grafted in mesostructured porous silicas. This type of materials was used to support the iron catalyst, because of their large specific area, as well as their versatile surface chemistry. Furthermore, the method of synthesis allows to tune the size of cavities, through the use of surfactant as templates. Control of the number of catalytic sites on surface is made possible by the procedure that exploits the molecular stencil patterning technique. The confinement of catalyst in the pores could be implemented to form products with high added value. In parallel, this complex was also grafted in fumed silicate, a simpler material, that could be used to degradation of polluants. The development of this type of supported catalyst required many caracterisations : elemental analysis, NMR, IR, XPS, UV-vis and EPR spectroscopies, TGA, nitrogen sorption isotherms, powder X-ray diffraction. Different grafting methods have been followed, and their efficacy compared. The catalytic activity of the different systems was also evaluated.Concerning the development of homogenous catalysts, the strengthening of pyridine  positions on the ligand has allowed to obtain new iron complexes, having a better stability to realize catalytic reactions in homogenous condition, and structural, spectroscopic, chemical, catalytic properties similar to the complexes of the same family.Finally, another iron complex has been applied in an electrochemical process using dioxygen in the presence of proton to catalyze hydroxylation of aromatic substrates.

Neste trabalho foi estudado o efeito da presença do cério em catalisadores de Pt/C e PtSn/C para eletro-oxidação de etanol visando aumentar a eficiência da reação, entender o motivo das variações na atividade catalítica e avaliar a estabilidade destes catalisadores nas condições de operação da célula. Todos os catalisadores foram preparados pelo método do ácido fórmico, os dados de espectroscopia XPS confirmaram as porcentagens nas composições dos catalisadores de PtCe/C e PtSnCe/C. Através das técnicas de TEM e XRD verificou-se que, com exceção da proporção PtCe/C 50:50, todos os outros catalisadores apresentaram tamanho de partícula próximos ao tamanho de cristalito. Os dados de XRD não indicam a presença de liga nos catalisadores de PtCe/C e de PtSnCe/C, mas mesmo em forma de óxido, o estanho apresentou um efeito eletrônico, como informado pelos dados de XAS. A adição de cério promove a oxidação do etanol em menores potenciais que a platina. A adição de estanho ao catalisador PtCe/C teve um efeito benéfico na atividade catalítica promovendo a oxidação em potenciais inferiores aos catalisadores de PtCe/C. A interação de Pt-Sn promove a dissociação da água para formar Sn-OHad próximo a espécies de monóxido de carbono adsorvidas na Pt, facilitando a rápida oxidação de etanol. Os testes de estabilidade indicaram que ao comparar os catalisadores PtSnCe/C com um catalisador comercial de PtSn/C, é possível aferir que a adição de cério promove uma melhora da estabilidade do catalisador. / In this work, the effect of the cerium presence in Pt/C and PtSn/C catalysts for ethanol electro-oxidation was studied to increase the efficiency of the reaction, to understand the variations in catalytic activity and to evaluate the catalysts stability at the cell operating conditions. All catalysts were prepared by the formic acid method, and the XPS data confirmed the percentages in the compositions of the catalyst PtCe/C and PtSnCe/C. The XRD and TEM data showed that, with the exception of the proportion PtCe/C 50:50, all other catalysts showed particle size close to the crystallite size. The XRD data does not indicate the presence of alloy in the PtCe/C and PtSnCe/C catalysts, but even in the form of oxide, tin presented an electronic effect, as reported by the XAS data. The addition of cerium promotes oxidation of ethanol in lower potential than platinum. The addition of tin in this catalyst had a beneficial effect on the catalytic activity, promoting the oxidation in lower potential than the PtCe/C catalysts. The interaction of Pt-Sn promotes the dissociation of water to form Sn-OHad near species of carbon monoxide adsorbed on Pt, facilitating the rapid ethanol oxidation. Stability tests showed when comparing PtSnCe/C catalyst with commercial catalyst PtSn/C, it was possible to determine that the addition of cerium provides an improvement of the catalyst stability.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T15:42:00Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 GustavoRO_DISSERT.pdf: 3063056 bytes, checksum: e0fe7867cfaf62acb3ba439a1526cef3 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-07-27 / Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior / Many pollutants dumped in waterways, such as dyes and pesticides, have become so ubiquitous that they represent a serious threat to human health. The electrochemical oxidation is presented as an alternative clean, efficient and economic degradation of wastewater containing organic compounds and a number of advantages of this technique is to just not make use of chemical reagents, since only electrical energy is consumed during the removal of pollutants organic. However, despite being a promising alternative, still needs some tweaking in order to obtain better efficiency in the elimination of persistent pollutants. Thus, this study sought a relationship between a recently discovered phenomenon that reflects the participation of dissolved oxygen in solution in the electrochemical oxidation process, as an anomaly, present a kinetic model that shows instantaneous current efficiency (ICE) above 100% limited by theory, manifested for some experiments with phenolic compounds with H2SO4 or HClO4 as supporting electrolyte with electrodes under anodic oxidation on boron doped diamond (BDD). Therefore it was necessary to reproduce the data ICE exposes the fault model, and thus the 2-naphthol was used as phenolic compound to be oxidised at concentrations of 9, 12 and 15 mmol L-1, and H2SO4 and HClO4 to 1 mol L-1 as a supporting electrolyte under a current density of 30 mA cm-2 in an electrochemical reactor for continuous flow disk configuration, and equipped with anodes DDB at room temperature (25 oC). Experiments were performed using N2 like as purge gas for eliminate oxygen dissolved in solution so that its influence in the system was studied. After exposure of the anomaly of the ICE model and investigation of its relationship with dissolved O2, the data could be treated, making it possible for confirmation. But not only that, the data obtained from eletran?lise and spectroscopic analysis suggest the involvement of other strongly oxidizing species (O3 (ozone) and O radicals and O2 -), since the dissolved O2 can be consumed during the formation of new strong oxidizing species, not considered until now, something that needs to be investigated by more accurate methods that we may know a little more of this system. Currently the performance of the electrocatalytic process is established by a complex interaction between different parameters that can be optimized, so it is necessary to the implementation of theoretical models, which are the conceptual lens with which researchers see / Muitos poluentes jogados em cursos d'?gua, como corantes e pesticidas, tornaram-se t?o onipresentes que representam uma s?ria amea?a a sa?de humana. A oxida??o eletroqu?mica se apresenta como uma alternativa limpa, eficiente e econ?mica ? degrada??o de efluentes contendo compostos org?nicos e uma das v?rias vantagens desta t?cnica ? justamente n?o fazer uso de reagentes qu?micos, uma vez que apenas a energia el?trica ? consumida durante a elimina??o dos poluentes org?nicos. Por?m, apesar de ser uma alternativa promissora, ainda necessita de alguns ajustes a fim de se obter melhor efici?ncia na elimina??o de poluentes persistentes. Assim este trabalho procurou alguma rela??o entre um fen?meno descoberto recentemente que evidencia a participa??o do oxig?nio dissolvido em solu??o no processo de oxida??o eletroqu?mica, com uma anomalia, presente no modelo cin?tico que apresenta corrente efetiva instant?nea (CEI) acima dos 100% delimitados pela teoria, que se manifesta para alguns experimentos realizados com compostos fen?licos tendo H2SO4 ou HClO4 como eletr?lito suporte sob oxida??o an?dica com eletrodos de diamante dopado em boro (DDB). Para tanto foi preciso reproduzir os dados de CEI que exp?e a anomalia do modelo, sendo assim, o 2-naftol serviu como composto fen?lico modelo, a ser oxidado nas concentra??es de 9, 12 e 15 mmol L-1, tendo H2SO4 ou HClO4 ? 1 mol L-1 como eletr?lito de suporte, sob uma densidade de corrente de 30 mA cm-2 em um reator eletroqu?mico de fluxo cont?nuo em configura??o de disco e equipado com ?nodos de DDB, ? temperatura ambiente (25 oC). Experimentos semelhantes foram realizados utilizando N2 como g?s de purga para eliminar o oxig?nio dissolvido em solu??o para que sua influ?ncia no sistema fosse estudada. Ap?s a exposi??o da anomalia do modelo da CEI e da investiga??o de sua rela??o com O2 dissolvido, os dados puderam ser tratados, o que tornou poss?vel sua confirma??o. Mas n?o ? s? isso, os dados obtidos da eletroan?lise e de an?lises espectrofotom?tricas sugerem a participa??o de outras esp?cies fortemente oxidantes, (O3 (oz?nio) e radicais O e O2 -), uma vez que o O2 dissolvido pode ser consumido durante a forma??o das novas esp?cies fortemente oxidantes, n?o consideradas at? agora, algo que precisa ser investigado por m?todos mais precisos para que possamos conhecer um pouco mais deste sistema. Atualmente o desempenho do processo eletrocatal?tico ? estabelecido por uma intera??o complexa entre diferentes par?metros que podem ser otimizados, por isso faz-se necess?rio a implementa??o de modelos te?ricos, que s?o as lentes conceituais com que os pesquisadores enxergam

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been assessed for their use in electrochemical energy storage applications, namely Hydrogen Storage and Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries. Furthermore;fundamental electrochemical studies have been conducted on aligned arrays of carbon nanotubes, and for the first time electrochemistry on pure, defect free, single layer graphene is reported. CNTs have been assessed for their potential as an electrochemical hydrogen storage material,finding a maximum recorded capacity for a single walled nanotube sample (SWNT) that was comparable to literature gas phase adsorption values. In-situ Raman spectroelectrochemistry was used to probe structural changes of the SWNTs with applied potential: no chemical functionalisation of the tubes or intercalation of protons was observed. It was concluded, therefore, that CNTs present no unique electrochemical hydrogen storage ability, other than their role as an adsorbent for gaseous hydrogen, which was evolved electrochemically. CNTs were also assessed as a possible electrode material for the VO(2+)/VO2(+) reaction, used in the positive half cell of commercial vanadium redox flow batteries and widely reported to exhibit quasi-reversible kinetics on carbon electrodes. Initial investigations revealed apparently reversible kinetics using a SWNT, the first time such a response has been observed on Carbon, and in contradiction to published work using CNTs for this application. Analysis via a range of electrochemical techniques highlighted the difficulty in using cyclic voltammetry to assess reversibility, particularly for CNT modified electrodes. The system was subsequently found to be quasi-reversible, with the deceptively small peak separation inferred to arise from the pores of the CNT electrode, therefore thin layer cell behaviour was observed. The porous contribution was confirmed using an electrode exhibiting poor kinetics (very small, indistinct Faradaic peaks), increasing the electrode porosity (using an aligned array of CNT) had a remarkable effect, with large Faradaic peaks (low separation ˜ 0.02-0.04 V) observed for a sample that was chemically identical. This work highlights the fundamental error in a portion of CNT literature, where kinetic enhancement is quantified by voltammetric peak separation, which can be erroneous unless the inherent porosity of the electrodes is considered. In contrast to the complexity of CNTs, graphene represents an ideal electrode material, allowing for direct determination of the electrochemical response of the graphene basal plane, eliminating the contribution of edge sites. An initial investigation towards this goal is presented.

The theme of this thesis is the development of mononuclear Ru-based complexes that are capable of catalyzing the water oxidation (or O2-evolving) reaction, e.g. 2 H2O → O2 + 4 H+ + 4 e−. Several families of mononuclear Ru water oxidation catalysts were designed and prepared. They feature with anionic ancillary ligands that contain carboxylate or phenolate donors. The properties of the catalysts were investigated in various aspects including coordination geometry, electrochemical behavior, and ligand exchange. All catalysts showed outstanding catalytic activity towards water oxidation in the presence of cerium(IV) ammonium nitrate as a sacrificial oxidant. High-valent Ru intermediates involved in the reactions were characterized both experimentally and theoretically. The kinetics of catalytic water oxidation was examined based on one catalyst and a prevailing catalytic pathway was proposed. The catalytic cycle involved a sequence of oxidation steps from RuII−OH2 to RuV=O species and O−O bond formation via water-nucleophilic-attack to the RuV=O intermediate. By comparing properties and catalytic performance of Ru catalysts herein with that of previously reported examples, the effect of anionic ancillary ligands was clearly elucidated in the context of catalytic water oxidation. Aiming to further application in an envisaged artificial photosynthesis device, visible light-driven water oxidation was conducted and achieved primarily in a homogeneous three-component system containing catalyst, photosensitizer, and sacrificial electron acceptor. Moreover, one model Ru catalyst was successfully immobilized on ordinary glass carbon surface through a facile and widely applicable method. / <p>QC 20121112</p>

The underlying motivation for the work carried out for this thesis was the growing need for more sustainable technologies. The aim was to synthesize a “palette” of functional nanomaterials using the established technique of hydrothermal carbonization (HTC). The incredible diversity of HTC was demonstrated together with small but steady advances in how HTC can be manipulated to tailor material properties for specific applications. Two main strategies were used to modify the materials obtained by HTC of glucose, a model precursor representing biomass. The first approach was the introduction of heteroatoms, or “doping” of the carbon framework. Sulfur was for the first time introduced as a dopant in hydrothermal carbon. The synthesis of sulfur and sulfur/nitrogen doped microspheres was presented whereby it was shown that the binding state of sulfur could be influenced by varying the type of sulfur source. Pyrolysis may additionally be used to tune the heteroatom binding states which move to more stable motifs with increasing pyrolysis temperature. Importantly, the presence of aromatic binding states in the as synthesized hydrothermal carbon allows for higher heteroatom retention levels after pyrolysis and hence more efficient use of dopant sources. In this regard, HTC may be considered as an “intermediate” step in the formation of conductive heteroatom doped carbon. To assess the novel hydrothermal carbons in terms of their potential for electrochemical applications, materials with defined nano-architectures and high surface areas were synthesized via templated, as well as template-free routes. Sulfur and/or nitrogen doped carbon hollow spheres (CHS) were synthesized using a polystyrene hard templating approach and doped carbon aerogels (CA) were synthesized using either the albumin directed or borax-mediated hydrothermal carbonization of glucose. Electrochemical testing showed that S/N dual doped CHS and aerogels derived via the albumin approach exhibited superior catalytic performance compared to solely nitrogen or sulfur doped counterparts in the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) relevant to fuel cells. Using the borax mediated aerogel formation, nitrogen content and surface area could be tuned and a carbon aerogel was engineered to maximize electrochemical performance. The obtained sample exhibited drastically improved current densities compared to a platinum catalyst (but lower onset potential), as well as excellent long term stability. In the second approach HTC was carried out at elevated temperatures (550 °C) and pressure (50 bar), corresponding to the superheated vapor regime (htHTC). It was demonstrated that the carbon materials obtained via htHTC are distinct from those obtained via ltHTC and subsequent pyrolysis at 550 °C. No difference in htHTC-derived material properties could be observed between pentoses and hexoses. The material obtained from a polysaccharide exhibited a slightly lower degree of carbonization but was otherwise similar to the monosaccharide derived samples. It was shown that in addition to thermally induced carbonization at 550 °C, the SHV environment exhibits a catalytic effect on the carbonization process. The resulting materials are chemically inert (i.e. they contain a negligible amount of reactive functional groups) and possess low surface area and electronic conductivity which distinguishes them from carbon obtained from pyrolysis. Compared to the materials presented in the previous chapters on chemical modifications of hydrothermal carbon, this makes them ill-suited candidates for electronic applications like lithium ion batteries or electrocatalysts. However, htHTC derived materials could be interesting for applications that require chemical inertness but do not require specific electronic properties. The final section of this thesis therefore revisited the latex hard templating approach to synthesize carbon hollow spheres using htHTC. However, by using htHTC it was possible to carry out template removal in situ because the second heating step at 550 °C was above the polystyrene latex decomposition temperature. Preliminary tests showed that the CHS could be dispersed in an aqueous polystyrene latex without monomer penetrating into the hollow sphere voids. This leaves the stagnant air inside the CHS intact which in turn is promising for their application in heat and sound insulating coatings. Overall the work carried out in this thesis represents a noteworthy development in demonstrating the great potential of sustainable carbon materials. / Das Ziel der vorgelegten Arbeit war es, mit Hilfe der Hydrothermalen Carbonisierung (HTC) eine Palette an verschiedenen Materialien herzustellen, deren physikalische und chemische Eigenschaften auf spezifische Anwendungen zugeschnitten werden können. Die Motivation hierfür stellt die Notwendigkeit, Alternativen zu Materialien zu finden, die auf fossilen Brennstoffen basieren. Dabei stellen vor allem nachhaltige Energien eine der größten Herausforderungen der Zukunft dar. HTC ist ein mildes, nachhaltiges Syntheseverfahren welches prinzipiell die Nutzung von biologischen Rohstoffen (z. B. landwirtschaftlichen Abfallprodukten) für die Herstellung von wertvollen, Kohlenstoff-basierten Materialien erlaubt. Es wurden zwei verschiedene Ansätze verwendet, um hydrothermalen Kohlenstoff zu modifizieren. Zum einen wurde HTC unter „normalen“ Bedingungen ausgeführt, d. h. bei 180 °C und einem Druck von etwa 10 bar. Der Zucker Glukose diente in allen Fällen als Kohlenstoff Vorläufer. Durch Zugabe von stickstoff und /oder schwefelhaltigen Additiven konnte dotierte Hydrothermalkohle hergestellt werden. Dotierte Kohlenstoffe sind bereits für ihre positiven Eigenschaften, wie verbesserte Leitfähigkeit oder erhöhte Stabilität, bekannt. Zusätzlich zu Stickstoff dotierter Hydrothermalkohle, die bereits von anderen Gruppen hergestellt werden konnte, wurde in dieser Arbeit zum ersten Mal Schwefel in Hydrothermalkohle eingebaut. Außerdem wurden verschiedene Ansätze verwendet, um Oberfläche und definierte Morphologie der dotierten Materialien zu erzeugen, welche wichtig für elektrochemische Anwendungen sind. Schwefel- und/oder stickstoffdotierte Kohlenstoff Nanohohlkugeln sowie Kohlenstoff Aerogele konnten hergestellt werden. Mit Hilfe von einem zusätzlichen Pyrolyseschritt (d. h. Erhitzen unter Schutzgas) konnte die Leitfähigkeit der Materialien hergestellt werden, die daraufhin als Nichtmetall-Katalysatoren für Wasserstoff-Brennstoffzellen getestet wurden. Im zweiten Ansatz wurde HTC unter extremen Bedingungen ausgeführt, d. h. bei 550 °C und einem Druck von ca. 50 bar, welches im Wasser Phasendiagram dem Bereich des Heißdampfes entspricht. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die so erhaltene Hydrothermalkohle ungewöhnliche Eigenschaften besitzt. So hat die Hochtemperatur-Hydrothermalkohle zwar einen hohen Kohlenstoffgehalt (mehr als 90 Massenprozent), enthält aber auch viele Wasserstoffatome und ist dadurch schlecht leitfähig. Da damit elektrochemische Anwendungen so gut wie ausgeschlossen sind, wurde die Hochtemperatur-Hydrothermalkohle für Anwendungen vorgesehen, welche chemische Stabilität aber keine Leitfähigkeit voraussetzen. So wurden beispielsweise Hochtemperatur-Kohlenstoff-Nanohohlkugeln synthetisiert, die großes Potential als schall- und wärmeisolierende Additive für Beschichtungen darstellen. Insgesamt konnten erfolgreich verschiedenste Materialien mit Hilfe von HTC hergestellt werden. Es ist zu erwarten, dass sie in Zukunft zu nachhaltigen Technologien und damit zu einem weiteren Schritt weg von fossilen Brennstoffen beitragen werden.

The main purpose of this work - to investigate patterns of electrochemical oxidation of ascorbic acid on polyaniline and poly(N-methylaniline) modified electrodes, in order to develop ascorbate-sensitive sensors. A detailed study of various factors affecting the aniline and N-methylaniline electrochemical polymerization and the resulting properties of PANI and PNMA layers was carried out for this purpose. Comparative study of modified electrodes in solutions of different acidity was performed and it was shown that PNMA had a better redox activity in slightly acidic and neutral solutions compared to polyaniline. The nature of amperometric response of modified electrodes to ascorbate was investigated and autocatalytic mechanism of ascorbate electrooxidation on PANI modified electrode was suggested. Using PANI and PNMA modified electrodes, prototypes of amperometric ascorbate sensors have been developed and their comparative studies were carried out. / Darbo tikslas - ištirti askorbo rūgšties elektrocheminės oksidacijos ant elektrodų, modifikuotų polianilinu ir poli(N-metilanilinu), dėsningumus, siekiant sukurti jautrius askorbatui jutiklius. Ištirta įvairių faktorių įtaka anilino ir N-metilanilino elektrocheminei polimerizacijai bei gautų PANI ir PNMA sluoksnių savybėms. Atlikti palyginamieji modifikuotų elektrodų tyrimai skirtingo pH tirpaluose ir parodyta, kad PNMA lyginant su polianilinu pasižymi geresniu aktyvumu silpnai rūgščiuose ir neutraliuose tirpaluose. Ištirtas modifikuotų elektrodų amperometrinio atsako į askorbatą pobūdis, ir pasiūlytas autokatalizinis askorbato elektrooksidacijos mechanizmas ant PANI modifikuoto elektrodo. Panaudojus PANI ir PNMA modifikuotus elektrodus, sukurti amperometrinių askorbato jutiklių prototipai ir atlikti jų palyginamieji tyrimai.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:23:29Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2010-04-30Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T19:09:17Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 perez_l_me_bauru.pdf: 2493638 bytes, checksum: 26329bfa30a60d575a769d58ce9d9493 (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / A oxidação do metanol apresenta problemas acentuadamente complexos que ainda não foram satisfatoriamente solucionados. Possui um mecanismo duplo caminho, ou seja, diretamente a CO2 ou pelo caminho alternativo via intermediários. Também como intermediário/produto da reação ocorre a formação de CO que é usualmente identificado como o agente bloqueador da superfície eletródica devido à sua adsorção irreversível. Baseado em um estudo recente da reação de oxidação do metanol sobre Pt por espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica (EIE), este trabalho teve por objetivo aplicar a técnica de EIE no estudo da eletrocatálise da reação de oxidação do metanol sobre fases intermetálicas ordenadas de PtMn, PtSb e PtSn em meio ácido, visto que os metais Mn, Sb e Sn por apresentarem característica oxifílica, podem formar mais facilmente espécies OH que promovem a oxidação de intermediários fortemente adsorvidos nos sítios ativos da superfície eletródica. Os intermetálicos também apresentam maior distância entre os sítios da platina o que pode favorecer uma configuração de adsorção vertical da molécula de CO que é mais fácil de oxidar quando comparado a uma configuração em ponte. Uma análise prévia da atividade catalítica desses materiais para a reação de oxidação do metanol foi realizada empregando-se as técnicas de voltametria cíclica cronoamperometria. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que o processo de oxidação do metanal utilizando os intermetálicos apresentou um deslocamento para valores menos positivos do potencial de início de oxidação, necessitando de uma menor demanda energética para que o processo de oxidação ocorra sobre a superfície destes intermetálicos. A oxidação do metanol apresentou densidade de corrente de corrente de pico superior para esses materiais quando comparado... / Methanol oxidation reaction congregates very complex constraints that were not conveniently solved so far. This reaction usually follows a dual pathway, i.e. direct oxidation to CO2 or through an alternative path via stable intermediates. CO is the most commom identified intermediate of the reaction and surface blocking agent due to its irreversible adsorption characteristic. The here in research is based on recent study performed with the methanol oxidation reaction on Platinum by employing the Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) technique. The aim of the research was to investigate the methanol oxidation reaction on PtMn, PtSb and PtSn ordered intermetallic surfaces, in acid medium, by means of the EIS technique. These materials were selected to the study since they have oxophilic metals (Mn, Sb and Sn) that could provide OH species on the electrode surface at electrode potentials less positive than polycrystalline Platinum under the same experimental conditions. Moreover, these surfaces also exhibits a larger Pt-Pt distance in comparison to polycrystalline Platinum that inhibits the stable bridge configuration adsorption of CO. The electrochemical data obtained have demonstrated that ehe methanol oxidation reaction on the studied surfaces presented a less positive onset potential as compared to Pt. The materials also have exhibited a higher maxima current densities and lower susceptibility for CO blocking than Pt. EIS spectra obtained fot the reaction taking place on Pt, PtSb and PtSn have presented an inductive component that is characteristic of stable intermediate adsorption process. Steady state measurements have pointed to a change in the mechanism of the reaction probably due to the action of surface oxygenated species. Furthemore, the EIS technique has been proved o be a powerful tool to investigate... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)