This master‘s thesis pertains to the design of a cargo truck with battery electric drivetrain. The presented design offers a solution which respects the technical requirements of such a vehicle, ergonomic needs of its crew, and demands on the aesthetics of a modern commercial vehicle. In consideration of the chosen drivetrain, this solution is proposed as a concept with an outlook of 10 to 15 years in the future. In keeping with the specified goals, this vehicle offers a novel appearance which attempts to characterize the electric drivetrain with certain visual elements, includes solutions that are readily available or currently in development, and optimizes ergonomics for maximum user comfort and safety.

The Well-To-Wheels (WTW) methodology is widely used for policy making in the transportation sector. In this paper updated WTW calculations are provided, relying on 2013 statistic data, for the carbon intensity (CI) of the European electricity mix; detail is provided for electricity consumed in each EU Member State (MS). An interesting aspect presented is the calculation of the GHG content of electricity traded between Countries, affecting the carbon intensity of the electricity consumed at national level. The amount and CI of imported electricity is a key aspect: a Country importing electricity from another Country with a lower CI of electricity will lower, after the trade, its electricity CI, while importing electricity from a Country with a higher CI will raise the CI of the importing Country. In average, the CI of electricity used in EU at low voltage in 2013 was 447 gCO2eq/kWh, which is the 17% less compared to 2009. Then, some examples of calculation of GHG emissions from the use of electric vehicles (EVs) compared to internal combustion engine vehicles are provided. The use of EVs instead of gasoline vehicles can save (about 60% of) GHG in all or in most of the EU MSs, depending on the estimated consumption of EVs. Compared with diesel, EVs show average GHG savings of around 50% and not savings at all in some EU MS.

Nowadays, the growing CO2 emissions is one of the main international issues. The world is becoming aware that the current climate issues start being critic and that something has to be done. In parallel, Earth starts running out of fossil fuels so alternative energies and alternative ways of producing energy have to be found. Driving electric vehicles would reduce the CO2 emissions and the use of fossil fuels. Of course, it would not make it possible to solve all the current issues but it could be part of a global solution. Over the past few years, the production of electric vehicle has grown faster and faster and consequently so did the production of electric vehicle charging stations. International and European standards have been set for electric vehicles and electrical vehicle charging stations. Besides, the growing number of charging stations entails a need of supervision. Supervision makes it possible for instance to control the charging stations remotely or to manage the transaction and the energy transmissions. Given the large number of charging station constructors and supervision system suppliers, the need of a common communication protocol was imperative. The Open Charge Alliance (OCA) has developed a standard communication protocol named Open Charge Point Protocol (OCPP). This protocol is still in development but it enables the different actors to have a common communication protocol and so to possibly interconnect their systems. Given OCPP is still under construction, the communication between a charging station and a supervision system is not trivial and some adjustments usually have to be made. The aim of this Thesis is to work on the compatibility between a supervision system and several charging stations from different constructors. / Idag är växande CO2-utsläpp en av de viktigaste internationella frågorna. Världen är medveten om att de nuvarande klimatfrågorna börjar bli kritiskar och att något måste göras. Parallellt börjar jorden rinner ut av fossila bränslen så alternativa energikällor och alternativa sätt att producera energi måste hittas. Användningen av elfordon skulle minska CO2-utsläppen och användningen av fossila bränslen. Naturligtvis skulle det inte göra det möjligt att lösa alla aktuella frågor, men det kan vara en del av en global lösning. Under de senaste åren har produktionen av elektriska fordon vuxit snabbare och snabbare och därmed också produktionen av elfordonens laddstationer. Internationella och europeiska standarder har fastställts för elfordon och elfordons laddstationer. Ett växande antal laddstationer medför ett behov av tillsyn. Tillsyn gör det möjligt att till exempel fjärrstyra de laddstationer eller att hantera transaktionen och energiöverföringar. Med tanke på det stora antalet laddningsstation konstruktörer och övervakning systemleverantörer, var behovet av en gemensam kommunikationsprotokoll absolut nödvändigt. Open Charge Alliance (OCA) har utvecklat ett standard kommunikationsprotokoll som heter Open Charge Point Protocol (OCPP). Detta protokoll är fortfarande under utveckling, men det gör det möjligt för olika aktörer att ha ett gemensamt kommunikationsprotokoll och att eventuellt sammankoppla sina system. Med tanke på att OCPP fortfarande är under uppbyggnad, är kommunikationen mellan en laddningsstation och ett övervakningssystem inte trivialt och vissa justeringar måste oftast göras. Syftet med dettaa examensarbete är att titta på förenlighet mellan ett övervakningssystem och flera laddningsstationer från olika leverantörer.

Electric vehicle adoption is one of the most prominent discussions currently facing the automotive industry, as this is an inevitable change towards a more sustainable future of transportation. Traditionally, car manufacturers adapt to consumer needs changing, thus prompting high relevance for understanding the consumer perspective and purchasing influences. This study aims to build a deeper understanding of the importance of internal and external factors on the EV consumer decision-making process, as well as to explore how the perception of such factors change upon adoption of electric vehicles. The study follows a positivism approach by conducting deductive research. A conceptual framework is developed based on review of research literature of rational choice theory, the consumer decision-making model, and factors impacting EV consumers, and constructing a model from the findings. Quantitative survey data is then collected following the model presented, and results are obtained using SPSS. Finally, the analysis applies the social identity theory, innovation diffusion theory, and theory of planned behavior for further evaluative discussions. The findings show that internal factors such as environmental awareness and fears and anxieties have a vital impact on consumers’ decisions of EV adoption and evaluation of EV alternatives, while social influences have a relatively small impact on the decision. The findings suggest a link between the theory of planned behavior and changing perceptions upon adoption of EV, in which factors relating to attitudes and perceived behavioral control are more susceptible to changing, while factors relating to subjective norms are not.

Purpose. In Sweden, private commuting accounts for two third of total transportation emissions and 21% of the country’s total. To become net-zero by 2045, Sweden plans to have 2 million electric cars on the roads by 2030. Whereas with current pace, there will be 1 million electric cars by the end of the decade. Cars registered before 2016 (referred to as old cars in the study) make up nearly half of the Swedish car fleet. Thus, replacing the old emission intensive cars with the modern lower or zero emission cars will catalyze the decarbonization of Swedish transport sector. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to probe if it is economical to keep using an old car in the future or to replace it with a new one. Methods. This study first compares the next 13-year Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) of old V70 (having current milage 200,000 km) with that of new replacement cars. The (selected) replacement are the most registered modern-day cars in Sweden by fuel type having same size as that of V70: V60 (ICE), V60 (PHEV) and Tesla Model 3 (BEV). Moreover, using TCO framework, the study also estimates if the replacement is more economical now or sometime in the future with either new replacement cars or their (4-year) used models. Results. The results show that for next 13-years in Sweden, it is more economical to replace the old V70 with any of the replacement cars. However, Tesla Model 3 is the cheapest option among the new cars and V60 (PHEV) among the used cars. Overall, it is more economical to replace with a used car. In addition, the replacement is most economical if done immediately (in 2022) and gets more expensive by each year of delay- because the owner will have to incur relatively higher V70 costs (vis-à-vis the replacement cars) for an additional year. Sensitivity analysis shows that with higher current salvage value, a V70 gets more expensive to own in next 13 years (due to higher depreciation) whereas the replacement becomes cheaper (utilizing higher salvage value to buy the replacement car). Discussion. The study can be expanded to suggest economical and emission efficient replacement options for other old cars to accelerate the decarbonization of Swedish private transport sector. Furthermore, this study was done in collaboration with Mekonomen Group to see the financial worth of old ICE car replacement by its customers. The study results reinforce the group’s diversification strategy from ICE cars-oriented business model to BEVs as the top focus. Finally, this study is based on the assumption that the total number of cars in Sweden will not increase in future- the old gets replaced by the new. Therefore, from a holistic perspective, the study discusses that a sustainable transportation model should move away from private ownership towards shared mobility to avoid the rebound effects of technological efficiency that increase the overall resource consumption.

Sans capteur,estimation de la position/vitesse,injection d'un signal HF,apprentissage,MSAPI,VE, / In EV traction applications, most of the mentioned criteria are inescapable, in particularthose related with cost (real-time implementation, additional hardware, etc.), those relatedwith functional requirements (torque ripple, motor efficiency, etc.) not to mention thatsensorless operation must cover the complete speed range.

Considerable jump and slip phenomena are observed at the non-equilibrium phase interface in microflows. Hence, accurate modelling of the liquid-vapour interface transport mechanisms that matches the observations is required, e.g. in applications such as micro/nanotechnology and micro fuel cells. In the sharp interface model, the classical Navier-Stokes-Fourier (NSF) equations can be used in the liquid and vapour phases, while the interface resistivities describe the jump and slip phenomena at the interface. However, resistivities are challenging to find from the measurements, and most of the classical kinetic theories consider them as constants. One possible approach is to determine them from a model that resolves the phase interface. In order to resolve the interface and the transport processes at and in front of the interface in high resolutions, there are two ways in general, microscopic or macroscopic. The microscopic studies are based either on molecular dynamics (MD) or kinetic models, such as the Enskog-Vlasov (EV) equation. The EV equation modifies the Boltzmann equation by considering dense gas effects, such as the interaction forces between the particles and their finite size. It can be solved by the Direct Simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) method, which considers sample particles that stand in for thousands to hundred thousands of particles and determine most likely collisions based on interaction probabilities, but it is time-consuming and costly. Here, a closed set of 26-moment equations is numerically solved to resolve the liquid-vapour interface macroscopically while considering the dense gas and phase change effects. The 26-moment set of equations is derived by Struchtrup & Frezzotti as an approximation of the EV equation using Grad's moment method. The macroscopic moment equations resolve the phase interface in a high resolution competitive to the microscopic studies. The resolved interface visualizes the interface structure and the changes of the system variables between the two phases at the interface. The 26-moment equations are solved for a one-dimensional steady-state system for non-equilibrium evaporation/condensation process. Then, solutions are used to find the jump and slip conditions at the interface, which leads to determining the interface resistivities at different interface temperatures and non-equilibrium strengths from the Linear Irreversible Thermodynamics (LIT). The interface resistivities show their dependence on the temperature of the liquid at the interface as well as the strength of the non-equilibrium process. As a result, in further studies, similar systems can be modelled using the sharp interface method with the appropriate jump conditions at the phase interface that can be found from the determined EV interface resistivities. / Graduate

The phenomenon of Virtual Power Plant (VPP) has gained increased attention in many parts of the world in recent years. In 2022 the European Union, in response to the rising energy prices as well as the ongoing Russian invasion of Ukraine, set a goal of speeding up the process of creating a digital energy system (European Commission, 2022, p. 20). VPP is the/a solution to the problem, and the EU is set to start its deployment of a common European energy data space no later than 2024 (European Commission, 2022, p. 3).  Previous academic research on VPP has been conducted on the technical aspects of the phenomenon and the adoption of VPP has not been approached from a consumer standpoint. We therefore identified a research gap, since, to the best of our knowledge, no qualitative or quantitative research has been conducted in the area of acceptance of VPP by individuals or households. We could see that there is a need for this type of research due to the goals set by the European Union, and the lack of current research. To fulfill the purpose of our study, we draw on the literatures on supplier switching in homogenous markets, innovation adoption, and technology acceptance to develop a conceptual framework and further empirically extend it via a mixed-method approach. The qualitative component of the study consists of three online on-on-one interviews, conducted with the help of a discussion guide. The interviewees selected were considered to be appropriate participants, suited for our study. The interviews gave us a deeper understanding of how VPP came across to the Swedish consumer, as well as how it was perceived by them. The quantitative study was done by the means of a survey of 75 respondents, enabling us to conduct a set of linear regressions in order to test our hypotheses.  Through our mixed-method study, we were able to develop an integrative framework, showcasing factors related to Swedish consumers’ intention to partake in VPP. We could conclude that Swedish consumers see value in VPP, and that there is curiosity related to the topic which indicates that there is an interest to explore and partake in VPP. We further discuss a range of recommendations to policy-makers and energy providers, as well as the potential contributions of VPP to the two important social aspects: sustainability and energy security.

As the world undertakes global climate goals to lower the emissions of greenhouse gases, more renewable energy sources are introduced in the electrical energy system, and fossil fuel driven combustion engines aims to be replaced by electric vehicles. New problems connected to the transition such as voltage fluctuations, production and consumption mismatch and high peak loads, requires new solutions. Such a solution could be to use smart charging algorithms and bidirectional charging for electrical vehicles in order to avoid further increased power demand during peak demand hours and to make the electric vehicle a resource more than solely as a mode of transportation. Such resource could be a battery storage for the home by using a vehicle to home strategy and for the electrical grid by using a vehicle to grid strategy. These strategies demand certain technology with only a few options available on the market today, but with a lot of recent and ongoing research on the way. In this thesis a smart charging algorithm is developed which aims to lower a households electricity cost by optimizing charging and discharging of an electric vehicle. The charging may come from the grid or the household’s photovoltaic system and the discharging may go to the house home appliances or back to the grid, utilizing vehicle to home and vehicle to grid strategies. The algorithm was tested in MATLAB for five different scenarios showcasing these possibilities and simulated in combination with five different user profiles. The results show that the charging peaks are moved to an area of less consumption and verify that the electricity costs can be lowered on daily and yearly basis.

The recent increase of electric cars adoption will inuence the electricity demand in the distributionnetworks which risks to be higher than the maximum power available in the grid, if not well planned. Forthis reason, it is on the DSOs and TSOs's interest to plan carefully coordinated charging of a bulk of EVsas well as assess the possibility of EVs acting as energy storages with the Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) or Vehicleto-Building (V2B) capability. When parked and plugged into the electric grid, EVs will absorb energy andstore it, being also able to deliver electricity back to the grid/building (V2G/B system).This can be anoptimized process, performed by an aggregator, gathering multiple EVs that discharge the battery into thegrid at peak time and charge when there is low demand i.e. overnight and o-peak hours.Numerous studies have investigated the possibility of aggregating multiple EVs and optimizing theircharging and discharging schedules for peak load reduction or energy arbitrage with participation in theelectricity market. However, no study was found for optimizing a shared eet of EVs with daily reservationsfor dierent users trying to perform V2B. In this study an optimization modelling algorithm (mixed integerlinear problem - MILP) that manages the possible reservations of the shared eet of EVs, coordinates thecharging and discharging schedules, and provides V2B (Vehicle-to-Building), with the objective of minimizingenergy costs and accounting with battery ageing has been developed. A case study with real data for abuilding is carried out modelling dierent number of EVs for two dierent days in year 2017, one in Marchand other in June.Results show that the prots are higher for all cases when introducing V2B as compared to a no optimizationscenario: V2B with battery degradation (50 ore/kWh) has decreased daily variable electricity costsbetween 54 and 59% in March and 60 and 63% for June when compared without smart charging. Integrationof battery degradation cost in V2B applications is necessary and inuences signicantly the chargingand discharging strategies adopted by EV and nally the total daily costs: The total daily cost increaseby maximal 10% for the day in March and 13% for the day in June when comparing the scenario that hasstationary battery and uses only-charging model for EVs with the scenario applying V2B mode consideringa degradation cost of 80 ore/kWh. / Ö kningen av antalet elbilar kommer att påverka lasten i elnätet som riskerar att bli högre än kapacitetom det inte är väl planerat. Därför är det i elnätsföretags intresse att samordna laddningen av de flesta elbilarna samt att utvärdera möjligheterna att använda elbilar som energilager gentemot elnätet (Vehicleto-Grid,V2G) eller byggnader (Vehicle-to-Building, V2B). Vid parkering och anslutning till elnätet kommer elbilar att ladda energi och lagra den, samtidigt de kan leverera el tillbaka till elnätet eller byggnaden (V2G/V2B). Detta kan vara en optimerad process som utförs av en aggregator genom att ladda flera elbilar i låglasttimmar och ladda ur dem under höglasttimmar.Många studier har undersökt möjligheten att aggregera flera elbilar och optimera laddningsoch urladdningsplaner för topplastreduktion eller energiarbitrage på elmarknaden. Ingen studie har dock hittats för att optimera en gemensam flotta av elbilar med dagliga reservationer för olika användare som försöker utföra V2B. Denna studie har utvecklat en optimeringsmodell (blandad heltalsprogrammering MILP) som hanterar möjliga reservationer av en flotta av elbilar, koordinerar laddning och urladdning planering, och utför V2B för att minimera energikostnader med hänsyn till batteriets åldrande. En fallstudie för en byggnad genomfördes modellering av olika antal elbilar för två dagar 2017, en i mars och andra i juni.Resultaten visar att vinsten är högre i samtliga fall då man introducerar V2B jämfört med scenario utan optimering: V2B med batteriladdningskostnad 50 öre/kWh minskade dagliga rörliga elkostnader mellan 54% och 59% i mars och mellan 60% och 63% i juni jämfört med utan smart laddning. Att inkludera batteriladdningskostnaden i V2B-applikationer är nödvändigt och har en signifikant inverkan på laddningsstrategierna och de totala kostnaderna: De totala dagliga kostnaderna ökar med upp till 10% i mars och upp till 13% i juni då man jämför scenariot att bara ladda elbilar och ha stationärt batteri med scenariot V2B med hänsyntill batteriladdningskostnad 80 öre/kWh.