O pó de forno elétrico a arco (FEA) é gerado durante a fusão de sucata ferrosa nos fornos elétricos a arco e coletado predominantemente através de filtros de mangas. Esta substância é listada como resíduo sólido perigoso de fonte específica, K061, conforme a Norma ABNT NBR 10004:2004. As maiores empresas siderúrgicas semi-integradas do mundo têm adotado para o tratamento de pó de FEA, fundamentalmente três rotas: a recuperação de zinco e chumbo, através de dois processos complementares, um piro-metalúrgico, o Wäelz kiln e outro hidro-metalúrgico, o processo de dupla lixiviação Óxido de Wäelz; a inertização através da blendagem com a cal, aditivos e água, de forma a alcançar o pH da mistura >11, o que garante que metais pesados como o chumbo, cádmio e o zinco, presentes no pó de forno elétrico, não possam se tornar solúveis, evitando consequentemente, a sua lixiviação e a disposição em aterros industriais de resíduos sólidos perigosos. Sob a perspectiva da sustentabilidade, deve ser considerada a rota da recuperação de zinco e chumbo, que para ser viável necessita reunir a geração de pó de FEA de varias plantas, o que para um país com dimensões continentais pode ser um fator de insucesso. Esse trabalho trata da reciclagem do pó de FEA através do processo de sinterização de um compósito constituído de pó de FEA aglomerado com coque, carepa e fluorita cerâmica em pelotas, aplicável a uma planta unitária. Como resultado deste processo foram obtidos dois coprodutos, o aglomerado pré-fundido, APF, com teor de óxido de ferro superior a 70%, objeto do processo de sinterização e o concentrado de zinco, com teor de óxido de zinco maior que 50%, resultante da volatilização deste metal durante o processo de sinterização e coletado através de filtro de mangas. Complementarmente foi extraído aproximadamente 90% dos óxidos de chumbo e cádmio contidos no pó de FEA inicial. A produção do APF ocorreu em escala experimental dividida em três fases, a primeira fase foi efetuada com oito formulações distintas e comprovou através de análises químicas de espectrometria por fluorescência de raios X e difratometria de raios X, a viabilidade técnica da utilização somente de resíduos sólidos industriais para fabricação do APF. A segunda fase, também com oito formulações, definidas conforme planejamento de experimentos com delineamento fatorial, teve como objetivo identificar os principais efeitos das interações entre os componentes do APF, para obtenção da mistura com formulação ótima. A terceira fase testou a intensidade das variáveis, coque e fluorita cerâmica, para a extração do zinco. As duas primeiras fases dos testes de produção em escala experimental foram realizadas em uma planta piloto de sinterização de fluxo descendente e a terceira fase em uma planta piloto de fluxo ascendente, ambas instaladas na usina ArcelorMittal Piracicaba. O APF, com a formulação ótima, foi produzido em escala industrial na planta de sinterização Metalflexi, também instalada na usina ArcelorMittal Piracicaba, e testado em alto-forno de pequeno porte. O concentrado de zinco foi caracterizado quimicamente para se avaliar o uso em segmentos industriais que utilizem este elemento. / The electric arc furnace (EAF) dust is generated during melting of steel scrap in electric arc furnaces and collected mainly through bag filters. The EAF dust is listed as hazardous waste from specific source, K061, according to ABNT 10004:2004. The major semi-integrated steel companies in the world have adopted for the treatment of EAF dust, basically three routes: the recovery of zinc and lead, through two complementary processes, a pyro-metallurgy, Waelz kiln and other hydro-metallurgical the leaching process of double oxide Waelz; the blanketing by blending with lime, water and additives in order to achieve the pH of the mixture>11, which ensures that heavy metals like lead, cadmium and zinc, present in furnace residue, can not become soluble, thereby avoiding the leaching and disposal in landfills of hazardous waste. This work suggests recycling of the EAF dust by sintering of a composite consisting of EAF dust agglomerate to coke particles (carbon source), mill scale (iron source) and ceramic fluorite (adictive agent used like fluxant) into pellets, a process known as sintering. As a result of the process is expected to obtain two by-products, the pre-cast agglomerated, PCA, with iron oxide content exceeding 70%, object of the process of sintering and zinc dust, containing more than 50% zinc oxide resulting from volatilization of this metal during the sintering process and collected by bag filter. Addition is expected to extract approximately 90% of lead and cadmium oxide contained in the initial EAF dust. The production of the PCA occurred in experimental scale divided into three stages, the first stage was performed with eight different formulations and checked by chemical analysis by X-ray fluorescence spectrometer and X-ray diffraction, the technical viability of using only solid waste industrial manufacturing PCA. The second phase, also with eight formulations, defined as planning experiments with factorial design, was tested the main effects and the double and triple interactions between the components of the PCA, to obtain the optimal formulation. The third phase was checked the intensity of the variables, coke fluorite ceramics, for removing zinc of PCA. The first two stages of the production tests were carried out on a pilot scale in a pilot plant sintering downstream and the third phase in a pilot plant xii upstream, both installed in the plant ArcelorMittal Piracicaba. The PCA, with the optimal formulation was produced on an industrial scale in the sinter plant Metalflexi also installed at the plant ArcelorMittal Piracicaba, and tested in small blast furnace. The zinc dust was characterized chemically for application in industries that use this element.

La sûreté de fonctionnement des batteries est un point clé pour la croissance de ce marché et le déploiement de solutions hybrides afin de réduire la consommation d’énergie. L’électrification croissante de ces systèmes ne fait qu’aggraver l’augmentation de l’occurrence de ce problème qui bien que connu depuis longtemps dans le domaine des applications DC ne fait l’objet de recherches intensives que depuis peu comme en témoigne le développement récent des premiers détecteurs d’arc pour l’aviation. L’arc dans les batteries représente aujourd’hui un risque potentiel pour l’intégrité du matériel et des personnes du fait de l’utilisation des batteries au sein d’applications industrielles de fortes puissances. Afin de caractériser ce risque et d’en évaluer la dangerosité, plusieurs bancs d’essais sont réalisés au niveau élément et système afin de reproduire le phénomène d’arc électrique. Les essais réalisés permettent d’extraire les caractéristiques intrinsèques de l’arc. En complément de cette caractérisation, un modèle d’arc permettant d’évaluer les paramètres et d’améliorer la compréhension de ce phénomène est réalisé. Des solutions de limitation, voire de suppression de l’arc issues de cette étude sont proposées. Parmi ces nombreuses solutions, l’utilisation de capteurs optiques, les méthodes numériques pour le traitement des signaux issus de l’arc, la modification de l’architecture batterie ainsi que l’augmentation du niveau de tension lors de l’amorçage de l’arc ouvrent la voie à la conception de systèmes de batteries innovants et plus sûrs en termes de fiabilité, sécurité et de robustesse. Les nombreuses perspectives de recherches proposées permettront également d’améliorer la couverture de ce risque. / The operational security of batteries is a key element in the growth of this market and the deployment of hybrid solutions to reduce energy consumption.The increasing electrification of these systems can only exacerbate the occurrence ratio increase of this problem. Although known for a number of years in the field of DC applications, electric arcs are the subject of intensive research for a short time as shown by the recent development of the first arc sensors for aviation. Electric arcs in batteries currently represent a potential risk to the integrity of the equipment and people because of the use of these batteries in industrial high power applications. To characterize this risk and assess its dangerousness, several test benches were designed at the cell and system level to reproduce the electric arc phenomenon. The tests carried out allow extracting the intrinsic characteristics of the arc. In addition to this characterization, an arc model to evaluate the parameters and improve the understanding of this phenomenon is realized. Limiting mitigation solutions or suppression of the arc resulting from this study are proposed. Among the many solutions, the use of optical sensors, the numerical methods for digital signal processing from the arc, the modification of the architecture as well as the increase of the arc ignition voltage pave the way for the design of innovative and safer batteries systems in terms of reliability, security and robustness. The numerous proposed research perspectives will also improve the coverage of this risk.

Orientador: Pedro Magalhães Sobrinho / Resumo: O aço é um dos materiais mais utilizados em todo o mundo, é possível ser 100% reciclado, obtendo novo aço sem perda de qualidade e quantas vezes for necessário. O setor siderúrgico é o maior consumidor de energia final destinado a indústria. Para produção do aço existem diversas alternativas possíveis. Neste trabalho é destacada a do forno elétrico a arco, a mais eficiente em termos de energia consumida e a única a qual pode-se utilizar como matéria-prima até 100% de material reciclado. Sendo o aço uma commodity, uma mercadoria básica facilmente intercambiável e utilizada como insumo para produção de outros produtos, tem seu preço regulado pelo mercado e trabalhos em eficiência energética são essenciais para a competitividade das empresas. O presente trabalho visa elaborar sugestões de métodos e tecnologias que possibilitem a redução do consumo específico de energia elétrica em kWh/t (quilowatt hora por tonelada de aço) para o processo de fusão do aço de um forno elétrico a arco, localizado na região do Vale do Paraíba. A metodologia empregada foi a pesquisa-ação, tendo um forno elétrico a arco real, disponível para estudos e captura de dados. As soluções encontradas estão desde técnicas operacionais de produção, até tecnologias em reaproveitamento de gases de exaustão, utilizados para o pré-aquecimento de sucata. Como resultado da pesquisa, obteve-se um conjunto de possibilidades tecnológicas com ganhos de até 143 kWh/t, o que representa cerca de 34% de redução no consumo es... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Steel is one of the most widely used materials worldwide, and it is possible to recycle 100% of it so as to generate new steels without quality loss and as many times as needed, however, the steel sector is the largest final energy consumer. There are several possible routes for steel production, but the Electric Arc Furnace has been selected for the present work due to being the most efficient in terms of energy consumption and it is the only one that can use up to 100% of recycled matter as raw material. As steel is a commodity, a basic goods easily interchangeable and used as input for the production of other products, its price is set by the market and energy efficiency studies are essential for the competitiveness of companies. The present work aims to elaborate suggestions of methods and technologies that allow the reduction of the specific electric energy consumption in kWh/t (kilowatt hour per ton of steel) by the steel melting process of an electric arc furnace located in the region of the Paraíba Valley. The methodology used was the action research, having an electric arc furnace, available for studies and data capture. The identified solutions range from operational production techniques to exhaust gas recovery technologies for scrap preheating. As a result, a set of technological possibilities with savings of up to 143 kWh/t have been obtained, which represents about 34% reduction in specific electric energy consumption by taking into account an average consumptio... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Mestre

Using of computer technology brings advantages of quick and well-arrange data. Computer technology offers change of transferring information the same way as that often using. Capacity and execution of computer technology is depending on kind and size of elaborated information. It is necessary to use to computer technology in application working with big data range and in application which needs many steps to finish calculation it means when we are using iterative methods. It is computer technology which creates main part of simulation, computation and visualization methods which are using in technical application. Plasma is using in many way of industry from technical manufacturing of materials to application in power electronics. Attention is paid to plasma. To description to fourth state of substance and for description to processes in plasma are used mathematic and physic equations. To solve to equations is hard and we need many steps to cover it. It is necessary to use computer technology to work up different method performs to describe electric arc.

Utsläppen av växthusgaser ökar över hela världen och nya tekniker används för att minska utsläppen. 7% av utsläppen kommer från stålsektorn. 25% av världens stålproduktion görs via återvinningstekniken ljusbågsugn. Genom återvinningsprocessen släpps det ut 500kg CO2 per ton producerat flytande stål. En möjlighet att sänka dessa direkta utsläppär att koppla ljusbågsugnsprocessen med biomassa förgasnings och koldioxidavskiljning. Den föreslagna lösningen i denna avhandling är att utnyttja avgaserna från stålsmältningen i förgasningsprocessen och skapa värdefulla produkter. Projektet utvärderar den tekniska genomförbarheten i form av energieffektivitet och kolutnyttjande. Den föreslagna processen simulerades med Aspen Plus. Ett problem med ljusbågsugnens avgaser är fluktuationen i sammansättningen. Tre fall avavgassammansättning undersöktes. Fall 1 var den genomsnittliga avgassammansättningen, medan fall 2 och 3 var extrema med högt CO- respektive CO2-innehåll. Resultatet visade att syntetsgassammansättningen starkt beror på förgasningsmedlet. I samtliga fall ökade energieffektiviteten och de direkta utsläppen minskade, jämfört med nuvarande process. Fall 1 visade generellt högst effektivitet och kolutnyttjande, medan det CO2 rika fallet (fall 3) hade lägst. Ett kontinuerligt flöde av förgasningsmedel krävs för att driva förgasningsprocessen. Eftersom ljusbågsugn är en satsvis process, sker luftförgasning när avgaser inte är tillgängliga. Det önskade resultatet av luftförgasning är att producera syntetsgas som liknar avgasförgasningens syntesgas. Resultaten visade att luftinfiltration i avgaser är gynnsamt för mer liknande syntesgas . / Greenhouse gas emissions are increasing worldwide, and new techniques are being adopted to suppress the emissions. The steel sector is responsible for 7% of the emissions. 25% ofthe world’s steel production is made through the recycling technique EAF. Throughout the recycling process, 500 kg CO2 gets emitted per ton of liquid steel produced. An opportunity to lower these direct emissions is to couple the EAF process to biomass gasification and CO2 utilisation process. The proposed solution in this thesis is to utilise the off-gases in the gasification process and create high-valuable products. The project evaluates the technical feasibility via energy efficiency and carbon utilisation. The proposed process was simulated using Aspen Plus. A problem with the off-gases from EAF gasification is the fluctuation in composition. Three cases of off-gas composition were therefore investigated. Case 1 was the average off-gas composition, while cases 2 and 3 were extreme with high CO and CO2 content, respectively. The result showed that the syngas composition strongly depends on the gasifying agent. In all cases, the energy efficiency increased, and the direct emissions decreased. Case 1 generally showed the highest efficiency and carbon utilisation, while the CO2 heavily case (case 3) had the lowest. A continuous flow of gasifying agents is required to run the gasification process. Since EAF is a batch process, air gasification runs when off-gases are unavailable. The desired outcome of air gasification is to produce syngas similar to off-gas gasification. The results showed that air infiltration in off-gases is favourable for more similar syngas composition.

[pt] Um modelo de descarburação e formação de escórias foi desenvolvido e aplicado ao processo de fabricação de aço em forno elétrico a arco de 120 ton de capacidade, com carga de ferro gusa e de sucata ferrosa. O carregamento de carbono foi significativamente variado para testar a consistência do modelo, considerando a cinética de oxidação do carbono, oxidação do fósforo e de redução do óxido de ferro. Gusa e coque foram empregados como fontes mais relevantes de carbono, resultando na entrada de 15 a 35 kg carbono/ton. As taxas de fusão do gusa e da sucata governam a disponibilidade dos elementos mais relevantes tais como carbono, fósforo e silício em solução, portanto, afetam as taxas de descarburação e de formação de escórias. A principal fonte de fósforo na carga ferrosa é o gusa. Desta forma, a evolução do teor de fósforo na fase metal mostrou-se importante para as estimativas das taxas de fusão do gusa, uma vez que o fósforo pode ser empregado como traçador adicional ao carbono. Modelos cinéticos envolvendo as reações do fósforo e silício operam simultaneamente com os modelos cinéticos referentes às reações do carbono e do ferro. Integrações numéricas associadas a um algoritmo de gradientes reduzidos generalizado foi empregado para o sistema não linear com restrições, de forma a determinar a maioria dos parâmetros cinéticos do modelo. A taxa de fusão global da carga de sucata foi maior do que a taxa de fusão aparente do gusa. Supõe-se que, o gusa apesar de ter relações geométricas desfavoráveis à transferência de calor em relação à sucata, poderia fundir mais rapidamente influenciado pelo seu baixo ponto de fusão. Entretanto, devido à formação de camada solidificada a partir da massa líquida na qual é imerso, é provável que mesmo fundido posteriormente, ocorra um processo de encapsulamento temporário, conferindo-lhe uma taxa aparente de fusão mais baixa. A constante cinética da reação de descarburação quando o teor de carbono é inferior ao carbono crítico de 0.19 por cento em massa e pelo menos 60 por cento da carga ferrosa estão fundidas, foi estimada em 0.74 min-1, taxas comparáveis às obtidas em aciaria a oxigênio. A principal fonte de oxigênio para oxidação do ferro é disponibilizada por lanças supersônicas. Estima-se que 20 por cento do oxigênio injetado via lanças sejam consumidos para a formação de óxido de ferro. Entretanto, cerca de 31 por cento e 26 por cento do oxigênio oriundo de injetores de póscombustão podem contribuir na formação de óxido de ferro ou são captados pelo sistema de exaustão de gases, respectivamente. Os resultados indicam que em torno de 15-30 por cento do carbono injetado podem não reagir no forno, sendo removidos com a escória. Adicionalmente ao estado de não-equilíbrio no sistema Fe-C-O observado, a dispersão nas estimativas de carbono solúvel na fase metal também pode ter sido influenciada pela intensidade de penetração da injeção de coque. O algoritmo proposto se constitui num promissor simulador de práticas que visam otimizar o rendimento metálico do ferro, a partir da dependência da cinética de redução do óxido de ferro com sua atividade química na escória. / [en] A decarburization and slag formation model was developed and applied to a steelmaking process based on scrap and pig iron mixes melted in a conventional AC electric arc furnace (EAF) with 120 ton capacity. The amount of carbon input was varied significantly in order to evaluate the model consistency regarding mainly the kinetics of carbon oxidation, phosphorus oxidation and iron oxide formation and reduction. Pig iron and coke were used as sources of carbon, resulting in variation of total carbon input in the range of 15 to 35 kg carbon/ton. The pig iron and scrap melting rates determine the availability of the most relevant elements such as carbon, phosphorus and silicon in solution in Fe-C melts, and therefore, affecting the decarburization as well the slag formation rates. The pig iron is the main source of phosphorus in the ferrous charge. Hence, the evolution of the phosphorus content in the metal phase is important to predict the pig iron melting rate, since phosphorus can be used as a tracer element in addition to carbon. Kinetic models regarding phosphorus and silicon were applied simultaneously to kinetic models of carbon and iron reactions. A numerical integration method supported a generalized reduced gradient algorithm for non-linear and constrained system (GRG) was applied to determine most of the kinetic model parameters. The scrap melting rates were found to be higher than pig iron apparent melting rates. This is expected that, even though the heat transfer issues related to significant differences in the area to volume ratio compared to scrap, pig iron may melt faster influenced by its low melting point. However, a solidified shell maybe created from the hot heel where pig iron is immersed, even when further melting occur, Fe-rich carbon melts could be encapsulated temporarily and present lower apparent melting rate. The decarburization rate parameter, when at least 60 percent of the charge is melted, was estimated as 0.74 min-1, when carbon content is lower than the critical carbon 0.19 percent wt, which is similar to the rate range observed in oxygen steelmaking facilities. Around 31 percent and 26 percent of the oxygen input through post combustion injectors were addressed to iron oxidation and to the off-gas system, respectively. The main source of oxygen taking part of iron oxidation is available from supersonic lances. Approximately 20 percent of the oxygen input through lancing are consumed to form iron oxide. The results also indicate about 15-30 percent of the injected carbon may not react and leave EAF during slagoff. In addition to the observed non-equilibrium state in Fe-C-O system, the dispersive behavior of the prediction of soluble carbon content in the metal phase could also be influenced by the intensity of penetration coke. The model framework is a promising tool to work preliminarily in what-if process scenario builder as a static model for iron yield optimization, regarding the kinetics of iron oxide reduction reaction and the proposed dependence on its chemical activity in the slag phase.

L’apparition accidentelle d’un arc électrique dans le système de distribution électrique d’un aéronef peut compromettre la sécurité du vol. Il existe peu de travaux liés à cette problématique.Le but de ce travail est donc d’étudier le comportement d’un arc électrique, en conditions aéronautiques,par des approches théorique, numérique, et expérimentale. Dans ce travail, un modèle MHD de la colonne d’arc à l’ETL a été utilisé, et résolu à l’aide du logiciel commercial comsolMultiphysics. Afin de décrire l’interaction plasma-électrodes, le modèle a dû étendu pour inclure les écarts à l’équilibre près des électrodes. Ces zones ont été prises en compte en considérant la conservation du courant et de l’énergie dans la zone hors-équilibre. L’approche choisie et le développement du modèle ont été détaillés. La validation du modèle dans le cas d’un arc libre a montré un excellent accord avec les résultats numériques et expérimentaux de la littérature.Ce modèle d’arc libre a été étendu au cas de l’arc se propageant entre des électrodes en configuration rails et en géométrie 3D. Une description auto-cohérente du déplacement de l’arc entre les électrodes a été réalisée. La simulation numérique a été faite pour des arcs en régimes DC, pulsé et AC à des pressions atmosphériques et inférieures. Les principales caractéristiques de l’arc ont été analysées et discutées. Les résultats obtenus ont été comparés avec les résultats expérimentaux et ont montré un bon accord.Ce modèle d’arc électrique est capable de prédire le comportement d’un arc de défaut dans des conditions aéronautiques. Des améliorations du modèle sont discutées comme perspectives de ce travail. / The ignition of an electric arc in the electric distribution system of an aircraft can be a serious problem for flight safety. The amount of information on this topic is limited, however. Therefore,the aim of this work is to investigate the electric arc behavior by means of experiment and numerical simulations.The MHD model of the LTE arc column was used and resolved numerically using the commercial software comsol Multiphysics. In order to describe plasma-electride interaction, the model had to be extended to include non-equilibrium effects near the electrodes. These zones were taken into account by means of current and energy conservation in the non-equilibrium layer. The correct matching conditions were developed and are described in the work. Validation of the model in the case of a free burning arc showed excellent agreement between comprehensive models and the experiment.This model was then extended to the case of the electric arc between rail electrodes in a 3D geometry. Due to electromagnetic forces the electric arc displaces along the electrodes. A self-consistent description of this phenomenon was established. The calculation was performed for DC, pulsed and AC current conditions at atmospheric and lower pressures. The main characteristics of the arc were analyzed and discussed. The results obtained were compared with the experimental measurements and showed good agreement.The model of electric arcs between busbar electrodes is able to predict the behavior of a fault arc in aeronautical conditions. Further improvements of the model are discussed as an outlook of the research.

La machine à collecteur mécanique reste, dans de nombreuses applications, une alternative crédible par rapport aux autres types de moteurs électriques. Dans le domaine automobile, ce sont les coûts de fabrication et surtout la fiabilité dû à l'absence d'électronique de puissance qui rendent cette solution si intéressante. Cela est également son point faible : l'absence de dispositif de régulation fragilise l'électronique de bord en cas d'appel de courant trop important au démarrage. L'usure du système balai-collecteur est également un point clé pour un démarreur d'autant plus que, pour assurer un fonctionnement « Stop-Start » en plus du fonctionnement traditionnel, le nouveau cahier des charges impose jusqu'à 450 000 cycles de démarrage (contre 30 000 auparavant). Ceci justifie la recherche actuelle sur ces dispositifs. En effet, une partie importante de cette thèse traite de la modélisation et de la mesure de la commutation dans le démarreur pour mieux évaluer les phénomènes qui y interagissent. L'arc électrique en fin de commutation joue un rôle important dans l'usure du système balais-collecteur. Une meilleure connaissance des facteurs influents permet, par la suite, de concevoir des appareils plus robustes. Dans une deuxième partie de la thèse, on s'intéresse au dimensionnement optimal d'un démarreur. Après avoir passé en revue les différentes méthodes d'optimisation pour traiter un tel problème et avoir sélectionné les plus adaptées, on traite un cas pratique de dimensionnement optimal. Cette problématique est fondamentale pour Valeo au vue des quantités d'appareils fabriqués et des futurs marchés offerts par le développement du « micro-hybride » qui se généralise / Nowadays, brushed DC motors are still used in many applications. In automotive industry, manufacturing cost and reliability are the two most important key indicators. That's why DC motors are preferred to others solutions requiring power electronics supply. But, there are also some drawbacks ; when the inrush current occurs (when the power-contact is switched on) the DC voltage of the battery decrease and can damage electronic components of the car. The wear of the brush-segments system is also a key issue for the life time of the starter. The new specifications for a « Stop-Start » starter use lead to a significant increase of the number of re-start cycles to be done by the device. We consider that a car achieve more than 450000 stop-and-start cycles during its lifetime whereas this number is only 30000 for the standard vehicles. These specifications justify the research work lead by Valeo on such device. An important part of the thesis concerns the modeling and the measurement of the commutation phenomena. The electric arc occurring at the brush trailing edges (when the physical contact ends) causes the wear of the brush-commutator system. A better knowledge of influent factors can lead to more robust device development. In a second part, we study the optimal design of a car starter regarding specifications. After a review of different optimization methods for dealing with such a problem, we select the most relevant ones and solve different practical problem around the starter. This issue is very important regarding the quantities of device manufactured and the market of micro-hybrid which is growing up very fast

Dans ce travail, nous proposons une approche essentiellement expérimentale. Dans une première partie, nous exposons les résultats obtenus par imagerie rapide et mesures électriques corrélées dans le temps, concernant l’étude de la transition entre des électrodes de cuivre dans l’air et l’argon, et entre des électrodes de tungstène dans l’argon pour des pressions comprises entre 100 mbar et 1 bar. Dans aucun cas une transition à l’arc n’est observée sans constriction quasi-totale de la colonne positive. Dans le cas d’électrodes en tungstène dans l’argon, la vitesse d’extension de la zone filamentaire depuis l’anode vers la cathode a été vue dépendante de la pression et de l’intensité. La durée d’une transition spontanée a été linéairement corrélée à la distance inter-électrode, suggérant un mécanisme propagatif à vitesse constante dans la colonne. Plus la pression est élevée, plus la durée totale des transitions est longue ; par ailleurs, à pression constante, cette durée de transition spontanée décroît à intensité croissante, pour tendre vers une durée limite, correspondant à la durée constante de changement de structure de la zone cathodique. Dans une seconde partie, nous nous intéressons à l’échauffement de surfaces d’anodes et de cathodes en cuivre dans l’air et dans l’argon soumises à des arcs électrique pour plusieurs gammes de courant (de 30 à 120 A). Deux méthodes de mesures sont utilisées. Enfin, nous utilisons les mesures de températures de surface pour proposer deux modèles simples de bilan de puissance à la surface des électrodes (flux de chaleur). L’un considère uniquement le chauffage dû au spot d’arc et l’autre le chauffage supplémentaire de la colonne d’arc. / In this work, an approach which is essentially experimental is proposed. In the first part, results are presented which were obtained by synchronized fast camera imaging and electrical measurements. These concern the study of the transition between copper electrodes in air and in argon, and between tungsten electrodes in argon for gas pressure in the range 100 mbar – 1 bar. In no case was the transition to arc been observed without the quasi-total constriction of the positive column. Considering tungsten electrodes in argon, the propagation speed of the filamentary part of the positive column from the anode to the cathode was found to be dependent on the gas pressure and the discharge current intensity. During spontaneous transition, the transition duration has been linearly correlated to the electrode gap, suggesting a propagative mechanism with a constant speed. The higher the pressure, the longer is the total transition duration. For a constant pressure and discharge current, the duration of spontaneous transition decreases with decreasing gap distance toward a limiting value, which corresponds to the constant duration of the structural change of the cathode root from diffuse to spot. In the second part, heating of copper anodes and copper cathodes submitted to electric arcs in air and in argon and for various current intensity values (from 30A to 120 A) is considered. Two measurement methods are used. Finally, the surface temperature measurements are used to purpose two models of the electrode surface power balance (heat flux). One model only considers the heating due to the arc spot and the second one considers a supplementary heating from the arc column.

Les disjoncteurs haute-tension sont des dispositifs permettant d'établir, supporter et couper le courant, dans le but de protéger les installations du réseau électrique. L'efficacité de la coupure du courant s'obtient par l'ouverture des contacts du disjoncteur et par la création d'un arc électrique entre ces derniers afin de dissiper l'énergie stockée par le dispositif. Le plasma ainsi créé est partiellement constitué de vapeurs métalliques et organiques respectivement issues de l'érosion des contacts (Cu ou W dans notre cas) et de l'ablation des parois (PTFE). Une fois l'arc établi, un gaz froid (généralement du SF6) vient souffler l'arc pour le refroidir et faciliter son extinction. Durant ce processus de refroidissement, le plasma vient éroder des parois (buses à base de téflon, monomère de base C2F4) dont la géométrie augmente l'efficacité du soufflage. Nous sommes alors en présence d'un plasma thermique SF6-C2F4-Cu (ou SF6-C2F4-W) caractérisé par sa composition, sa température et sa pression. Pour caractériser ces transferts d'énergie dans le milieu ou de l'arc vers les matériaux (effets thermiques plutôt que chimiques), nous avons alors recours à la modélisation afin de réduire les essais expérimentaux qui s'avèrent très coûteux. Pour mieux maîtriser ces échanges et optimiser ces dispositifs, il est donc primordial de bien connaître les propriétés chimiques, radiatives, thermodynamiques et de transport du gaz qui varient rapidement avec la pression, la température et la nature (composition) du milieu. Cette thèse porte sur l'étude des propriétés radiatives et des propriétés transport d'un plasma de SF6 contaminé par des vapeurs organiques (C2F4) et métalliques (Cu ou W), dans le but d'améliorer les modèles numériques par la prise en considération de ces vapeurs dans le milieu. Actuellement, l'implémentation de telles données (pour des mélanges ternaires) dans les modèles s'avère très difficile et conduit à des temps de calcul extrêmement long. Afin de réduire ces temps de calcul nous avons réalisé une étude sur les lois de mélange, dans le but de reconstituer les propriétés radiatives et de transport pour tout type de mélanges ternaires SF6-C2F4-Cu et SF6-C2F4-W. / The High Voltage Circuit Breaker (HVCB) represents one of the most important and complex components in the energy transmission, it must be there to isolate faulted section of a network, interrupt fault and abnormal currents: due to non-linear loads (for example arc furnace) or other load variation. Nowadays, to reduce the cost of HVCB development, the numerical model based on physical considerations is used for designing circuit-breakers. However, whatever the operating conditions, the arc does not establish in pure SF6, which is currently the dielectric gas used in the HVCB. In fact, during the interrupting phase the electrical arc is established between metallic electrodes (Cu) and quenched inside a nozzle composed by PTFE (C2F4), this electrical arc is an energetic environment which ablates the PTFE issue from wall and erodes copper issue from electrode. How it has been reported by several authors, the presence of organic and/or metallic vapours in the plasma modifies the properties of this one. Recent works have proved the impact of the PTFE vapour on the rise of pressure and the arc blown. Furthermore, the presence of metallic vapours has an important impact on the electrical conductivity and radiation emission. The calculation of the electrical arc properties composed by SF6-C2F4-Cu and SF6-C2F4-W has been performed for pressures up to 250 bars, temperatures between 300K and 30 000K and various mass concentrations with the assumption of Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium (LTE). The first part of this thesis give a presentation of the High-Voltage Circuit Breaker. The second part of this thesis is devoted to the calculation of the total atomic and molecular radiation. The third part is dedicated to the calculations of the transport, which have been calculated according to the Chapman-Enskog theory with the following approximations: third for electrical conductivity and for electron translational thermal conductivity, second for heavy species translational thermal conductivity, and first for reactional thermal and viscosity. Finally, we focus on the elaboration of mixing for our ternary mixture. Currently, calculating the plasma properties at each time and for all composition, pressure and temperature in a numerical model necessitate consequential calculation time. For these reasons, we have studied different mixing rules for the mixture SF6-C2F4-Cu and SF6-C2F4-W.