The energy sector faces sustainability challenges that are re-working the established patterns of energy supply, distribution and consumption (Anderson et al. 2008; Haas et al. 2008; Stern 2008; Shove and Walker 2010). Amidst these challenges, socio-technical energy transitions frameworks have evolved that focus on transitions towards decarbonised, sustainable energy systems (Bridge et al. 2013). However, the ‘socio-‘ or social is typically missing as we confront climate and energy risks in a moral vacuum (Sovacool et al. 2016). The energy justice framework provides a structure to think about such energy dilemmas. However, the full extent and diversity of justice implications within the energy system have been neglected. Thus, borrowing from and advancing the framework this research explores how energy justice is being articulated with attention to three emergent areas of growth, the themes of: (1) time, (2) systems component and (3) actor. It does so through a case study of nuclear energy, which was chosen because of its points of enquiry with regards to these three areas of growth, and its historical and on-going importance in the UK energy mix. Using results from 36 semi-structured interviews with non-governmental organisations and policy actors across two case studies representative of the nuclear energy stages of energy production and of waste storage, disposal and reprocessing – the Hinkley Point and Sellafield nuclear complexes – this research presents new insights within each of these previously identified areas of development. It offers the contributions of (1) facility lifecycles, (2) systems approaches and (3) the question of ‘justice by whom?' and concludes that the energy justice framework can aid energy decision-making in a way that not only mitigates the environmental impacts of energy via socio-technical change, but also does so in an ethically defensible, socially just, way.

美國擁有豐富的石油儲量，目前已探明的石油儲量即達到 485 億桶，居世界 第 9 位；同時也於 2014 年追過沙烏地阿拉伯，以平均每日 1164 萬桶的產量成為 世界上最大石油生產國。但另一方面，美國每日的石油消耗量，更大於歐洲及歐 亞大陸內 29 個國家的每日消耗量的總合，成為世界上最大的石油消費國。身為 世界上最大的能源消費國及戰後世界秩序的主導者，同時歷經一、二次世界大戰 及石油危機的重大衝擊後，深知能源的穩定供應是國家安全的重要基礎，美國必 須盡全力透過外交甚至軍事手段以確保能源的安全，所以歷屆政府都以能源安全 作為國家安全及外交政策的重點。 中東是目前全球己探明石油儲量最大的地區，也是全球石油產量最大的地區， 是以美國以能源戰略為導向的外交政策（簡稱能源外交）傳統上是以中東石油為 重心，美國也將中東地區的均勢與穩定、確保石油運輸通道的安全等視為其最根 本的國家利益之一。二次世界大戰之後，美國為了擴張或鞏固其在中東地區的影 響力而投入了大量的資源進行政治、經濟及軍事的干預。而頁岩油的出現使得美 國石油自給率大幅提高，對中東地區石油的依賴也迅速下滑。 頁岩油的出現是否會讓美國改變其向中東傾斜的外交政策，進一步將其全球 戰略部署重心進行調整至快速崛起的亞洲地區，值得我們觀察與探討。本論文以 文獻研究之方式，透過分析美國對石油進口的依賴程度與其在中東發生軍事衝突 時所採用的外交政策工具之間的關聯，嘗試探討在頁岩油革命大幅提高美國能源 自給率後，是否會影響美國對中東地區事務的干預程度。 本研究發現，石油進口比例的確影響了美國在中東地區所運用的外交政策工 具。石油進口比例高時，美國面對中東的跨國軍事衝突時傾向採取強度較高的外 交政策工具；石油進口比例低時，則採取干預強度較低的外交政策工具。是以本 研究認為，在頁岩油革命使美國進一步降低對進口石油的依賴後、將使中東這個 提供美國主要石油來源的地區的重要性降低。但另一方面，中東除了提供美國重 要的石油來源，亦是全球的石油供應中心，美國對中東地區的影響力不僅關係到 美國的能源安全，亦關係到美國全球霸權的地位。 / United States has abundant oil reserves that reserves reached 485 billion barrels, ranking No. 9 in the world; and also chase in 2014 over Saudi-Arabia, to 1164 million barrels of production per day on average to become the world largest oil producer. On the other hand, the US daily oil consumption, the greater the total combined daily consumption in Europe and Eurasia in the 29 countries, the world's largest oil consumer. As the world's largest energy consumer and the postwar world order leader, after a while, after the Second World War and the significant impact of the oil crisis, we know that stable supply of energy is an important basis for the national security of the United States must do efforts through diplomatic and even military means to guarantee energy security, the successive governments have focused on energy security as national security and foreign policy. The Middle East is currently the world's largest oil reserves in the region have been proven, is the world's largest oil production area, based on the US foreign policy-oriented energy strategy (referred to energy diplomacy) is traditionally focus on Middle East oil, the United States will in the Middle East balance and stability in the region, to ensure the safety of oil transport corridor, etc. regarded as one of the most fundamental interests of their country. After World War II, the United States in order to expand or consolidate its influence in the Middle East and put a lot of resources, political, economic, and military intervention. The emergence of shale oil self-sufficiency rate of such a substantial increase in US oil dependence on Middle East oil is also declining rapidly. Shale oil occurs whether the United States will change its foreign policy towards the Middle East tilt further its global strategic center of gravity to adjust to the rapid rise of Asia, we should observe and discuss. In this paper, after the manner of literature, through the analysis of foreign policy tools related U.S. dependence on oil imports and its military conflict in the Middle East used between attempts to discuss a substantial increase in US energy self-sufficiency rate in shale oil revolution, whether the United States will affect the level of intervention in the Middle East affairs. The study found that the proportion of imported oil does affect US foreign policy tool in the Middle East by the use of. A high proportion of oil imports, the United States when faced with cross-border military conflict in the Middle East tends to take a higher intensity of a foreign policy tool; low proportion of imported oil, then take a low intensity intervention foreign policy tool. The present study is that in the US shale oil revolution to further reduce the importance of post-import dependence on oil, the Middle East, will provide the main source of US oil region is reduced. On the other hand, the Middle East and the United States in addition to providing an important source of oil, is also a center of global oil supplies, the US forces in the Middle East not only to America's energy security, but also related to the status of US global hegemony.

中共改革開放後，經濟快速發展，能源需求高漲。自 1993 年成為石油淨進口國，石油消費量不斷擴大，產量卻無法大幅提升，石油供給不足的缺口正逐步擴大，對進口原油的依賴成為中共國家安全的潛在威脅。因此中共試圖以國有石油企業「走出去」到海外投資的能源外交政策，以達成供應安全、油源多元化目標。 本文以政治經濟途徑分析中共能源外交政策的發展，探討中共政府如何形成側重能源供應面的石油戰略，何以藉由國有石油企業海外投資做為政策工具，而發展出來的能源外交政策。如何推動能源外交政策以保證石油供應安全？中共能源外交活動究竟取得什麼樣的成果？又將面臨多大的挑戰？透過這幾個研究問題的驗證，本文認為中共能源外交活動以國家安全為主軸，以政府力量扶持三大石油企業海外投資活動，在某種程度上是代表國家力量的擴張，儼然成為國際能源體系不安全的因素，導致無法確保石油供應安全。未來中共能源安全策略雖仍以國家安全、經濟民族主義為基調，但可預見中共將更加積極參與國際能源貿易活動與國際能源組織，建構具有中國特色的能源外交政策。 關 鍵 詞：能源、能源安全、石油安全、中共外交、能源外交 英文關鍵詞：Energy, Energy Security, Oil Security, China's Foreign Policy , Energy Foreign Policy

Submitted by SBI Biblioteca Digital (sbi.bibliotecadigital@puc-campinas.edu.br) on 2018-04-06T18:44:36Z No. of bitstreams: 1 RENATA COVISI PEREIRA.pdf: 1582187 bytes, checksum: ba134ebb5f044e24a48b61942a2c7db5 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-04-06T18:44:36Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 RENATA COVISI PEREIRA.pdf: 1582187 bytes, checksum: ba134ebb5f044e24a48b61942a2c7db5 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-12-17 / Pontif?cia Universidade Cat?lica de Campinas - PUC - Campinas / The concept of sustainability can be applied to the various forms of relationship between man and his habitat. The displacements of people and goods are aspects of the living conditions in the cities and their unfolding, representing part of this association. The process of urbanization and the widespread growth of the cities interfere with these displacements, causing problems in urban mobility. The collective urban transport, which can be an alternative to boost mobility and reduce the use of individual transport, has been weakened and scrapped by policies that go against sustainability. The use of fossil fuel, a consequence of the road transportation option for people and goods, is known as one of the main causes for pollution. In this context, the intense use of motorized transport makes it necessary to deepen the debate on sustainable urban mobility. The main purpose of this research is to discuss sustainable urban mobility, focusing on collective public transportation, its social and economic effects and the environmental impacts of different types of fuel. To achieve this goal, different methods will be used: bibliographic research, elaboration of an index of sustainable urban mobility and Full Cost Accounting Evaluation. These should help answering the following question: Can sustainable urban mobility be achieved by expanding and improving collective urban transport, with the use of renewable fuels (biodiesel and electricity) replacing fossil fuels (diesel) a being good alternative for these advances? As results we found that, in the city of Campinas, sustainable mobility has been negatively affected by the indiscriminate use of individual motorized vehicles, the consumption of fossil fuels, and by the constant increase of the fleet. Finally, from the comparison carried through the Full Cost Accounting Evaluation, it can be observed that the use of electric-powered buses, when compared to diesel and biodiesel, is the best alternative in all three dimensions of sustainability, specially in the environmental dimension. / O conceito de sustentabilidade pode ser aplicado ?s diversas formas de rela??o entre o homem e seu habitat. Os deslocamentos de pessoas e mercadorias s?o aspectos das condi??es de vida nas cidades e seus desdobramentos, representando parcela dessa associa??o. O processo de urbaniza??o e a amplia??o da ?rea ocupada pelas cidades dificultam esses deslocamentos, causando problemas na mobilidade urbana. O transporte coletivo urbano, que pode ser uma alternativa para dinamizar a mobilidade e reduzir a utiliza??o do transporte individual, tem sido enfraquecido e sucateado por pol?ticas que v?o na contram?o da sustentabilidade. O uso de combust?veis f?sseis, consequ?ncia da op??o pelo transporte rodovi?rio de pessoas e mercadorias, ? conhecido como uma das principais causas da polui??o atmosf?rica. Nesse contexto, o intenso uso de transporte motorizado torna necess?rio aprofundar o debate sobre a mobilidade urbana sustent?vel. O objetivo principal desta pesquisa ? discutir a mobilidade urbana sustent?vel, com foco no transporte p?blico coletivo, seus efeitos sociais, econ?micos e os impactos ambientais dos diferentes tipos de combust?vel. Para isso ser?o utilizados diferentes m?todos: pesquisa bibliogr?fica, elabora??o de um ?ndice de mobilidade urbana sustent?vel e Avalia??o de Custos Completos. Estes dever?o auxiliar na resposta ? seguinte quest?o: A mobilidade urbana sustent?vel pode ser alcan?ada por meio da amplia??o e melhoria no transporte coletivo urbano, sendo a utiliza??o de combust?veis renov?veis (biodiesel e eletricidade) em substitui??o aos f?sseis (diesel) uma boa alternativa para esses avan?os? Como resultados temos a indica??o de que, no munic?pio de Campinas, a mobilidade sustent?vel tem sido afetada negativamente pelo uso indiscriminado de ve?culos individuais motorizados, pelo consumo de combust?veis f?sseis, e pelo aumento constante da frota. Por fim, a partir da compara??o por meio da Avalia??o de Custos Completos, pode-se observar que a utiliza??o de ?nibus movidos ? energia el?trica, em compara??o com o diesel e o biodiesel, ? a melhor alternativa nas tr?s dimens?es da sustentabilidade, com destaque para a dimens?o ambiental.

本文由新安全觀角度研究石油能源安全，由安全分析發現，任何影響石油供給的課題，都會成為安全議題的指涉對象；二戰結束後，因戰爭需求的石油使用動機轉變成為經濟發展的目的，因此經濟互動對能源安全的影響，加上自70年代末期後核能使用對環境破壞帶來的不確定性，更加重石油在能源市場的重要性，另一方面，環境議題的重視在90年代以來成為影響石油能源安全的重要「功能性行為者」，所以國際能源安全大致受到能源生產消費自身的限制、經濟發展與能源產業的互動，及環境管制的三面向的領域作用影響。 由區域安全分析的層次來看，資源蘊藏與地域分配有密切關係，在60年代後石油躍升成主要的能源來源，加上石油輸出國家組織的成立，使石油生產集中的情況更加明顯，面對政治夾雜經濟的複雜供需情況，使區域安全分析成為研究能源安全的重要途徑。本文以美國涉足中亞之石油能源安全為例發現，因為能源生產分配集中，使油氣產地對更具戰略意義，然政治因素仍是目前影響美國石油安全的重要變因，但經濟及環境發展在能源安全政策整體制定上仍是不可或缺的內涵。 / The thesis is aimed to make the study of oil energy security in the viewpoint of new security concept. In the framework of security analysis, what may affect the oil security of supply will be possible to be the reference object of security agenda. And after the WW II, the purpose of oil using form the war fighting to economic development emphasize the importance between the energy security and economic interaction. With the environmental destruction uncertainties resulting from the nuclear using, the environmental issue became the main factor— the functional behavior within the framework of energy security analysis. Thus, international energy security is concerned by the aspects of the self-limitation of energy supplier, the interaction between the economic development and energy industries, and the environmental regulation. We can reach the conclusion that there is the close relation between the energy resource and regional distribution with the regional level of security analysis. In 60s, oil raise to be the main global energy source, and phenomenon of oil production centralization became more obvious after the foundation of OPEC. Facing the situation mixed with the energy supply and demand because of the political and economic reasons, it is the best method to take the way of regional security analysis to make the study of energy security. Besides, it concludes that the oil production place become more strategic as making the study of “American oil energy security policy set foot in Central Asia”. At the present time, political factor still ruling guides the American oil energy security; however, the environment development is indispensable in making the whole energy security policy.

Thesis (Ph.D.); Submitted to the Univ. of California, Berkeley, CA (US); 24 Nov 2004. / Published through the Information Bridge: DOE Scientific and Technical Information. "UCRL-TH-208645" Allen, M. 11/24/2004. Report is also available in paper and microfiche from NTIS.

Вопросы энергосбережения и повышения энергоэффективности являются одними из основных приоритетов государственной политики в деятельности органов исполнительной власти, как на федеральном, так и на региональном уровнях, т. к. Россия все еще принадлежит к группе стран с очень высокой энергоёмкостью ВВП. Цель диссертационного исследования заключается в разработке практических рекомендаций по повышению эффективности использования топливно-энергетических ресурсов в условиях реализации региональной политики энергосбережения. В работе рассмотрен топливно-энергетический комплекс Свердловской области, дана его характеристика и описаны его особенности. Проведен анализ использования энергоресурсов в различных сферах региональной экономики: рассмотрены энергоёмкость валового регионального продукта, объемы финансирования энергосберегающих мероприятий, удельные расходы топливно-энергетических ресурсов. Предложен проект по переводу автопарка транспортной компании с бензинового топлива на газомоторное с целью снижения потребления энергетических ресурсов и вредного воздействия на окружающую среду. Проведена оценка экономического и экологического эффектов реализации проекта. / Issues of energy conservation and energy efficiency are one of the main priorities of state policy in the activities of executive bodies, both at the federal and regional levels, since Russia still belongs to the group of countries with very high energy intensity of GDP. The purpose of the dissertation research is to develop practical recommendations to improve the efficiency of the use of fuel and energy resources in the context of the implementation of the regional energy conservation policy. The work considers the fuel and energy complex of the Sverdlovsk region, gives its characteristics and describes its features. The analysis of the use of energy resources in various areas of the regional economy is carried out: the energy intensity of the gross regional product, the volumes of financing energy-saving measures, the specific costs of fuel and energy resources are considered. A project is proposed to transfer the fleet of a transport company from gasoline to gas engine fuel in order to reduce the consumption of energy resources and harmful effects on the environment. An assessment of the economic and environmental effects of the project is presented.

Recent years have seen an unprecedented global increase in the production and use of biofuels. This has been driven primarily by government support for biofuel industries. Soybeans are the only field crop produced in sufficient quantities in the province of KwaZulu- Natal (KZN) that the South African (SA) industrial biofuel strategy identifies as a potential biodiesel feedstock. Thus, this study is an evaluation of the economic feasibility of producing biodiesel on farms from soybeans in the main soybean-producing regions of KZN, using batch processing biodiesel plants. A mixed integer linear programming model was developed to simulate observed agricultural land rental rates (estimated at 4.48% of the market value of land) and cropping behaviour of commercial crop farms in the study regions. The model incorporates various alternative crops, crop rotations, tillage techniques, arable land categories and variance-covariance matrices to account for risk in production. All data are on a real 2009/10 basis. The model is used to predict possible farmer investment behaviour and determine the minimum biodiesel subsidy required to stimulate soybean-based biodiesel production in the study areas. Results suggest that biodiesel production is currently not an economically viable alternative to fossil fuel, and that the incentives and commitments outlined by the current industrial biofuel strategy are inadequate to both establish and sustain a domestic biodiesel industry. Under baseline assumptions, a realistic minimum implicit subsidy of R4.37 per litre of biodiesel is required to draw soybean-based biodiesel production into the optimum solution for commercial farms. The economic feasibility of on-farm biodiesel production is highly dependent on the soybean price (i.e., the feedstock input cost) and the soybean oilcake price (i.e., the highest valued byproduct). Thus, future promotion of biodiesel ventures could primarily target a reduction of feedstock costs through the development of new technologies which increase yields of available feedstocks and/or permit the use of lower cost alternatives. Higher subsidy levels are anticipated for: (i) small-scale initiatives (particularly in the absence of a rental market for cropland); (ii) soybean-based biodiesel production in areas with less suitable growing conditions for cultivating soybeans; and (iii) using sunflower and/or canola as biodiesel feedstock. To the author’s knowledge no other previous studies have attempted to quantify the minimum level of support needed to stimulate biodiesel production in South Africa. The SA industrial biofuels strategy promotes a development-oriented strategy with feedstock produced by smallholders and processed by traditional producer-owned cooperatives. However, traditional cooperatives suffer from a myriad of institutional problems that are associated with ill-defined property rights. As such, it is argued that these initiatives will fail to attract the capital and expertise needed to process biodiesel. This research, therefore, highlights the need for South Africa’s current Cooperatives Act to be amended. Accordingly, this also infers a need to revise the proposed SA industrial biofuels strategy. It is concluded that smallholder participation in biodiesel ventures would require a rental market for cropland, co-ownership of the processing plant in a non-traditional cooperative or investor-owned firm, information and training, and a high level of government subsidy. This research advocates that government consider promoting soybean oil extrusion ventures as a means of stimulating rural development for small-scale farming initiatives rather than soybean-based biodiesel production, as they will likely require less government assistance, whilst potentially combating the food versus fuel debate against biofuels. This is compounded by the fact that South Africa has historically been a net importer of both soybean oilcake and soybean oil. Importantly, however, the proliferation of such initiatives should not be based on the current notion of traditional cooperatives. The need for government to play a proactive role in such ventures through facilitating the development of appropriate business models which stimulate private investment in feedstock and processing facilities is clearly evident. / Thesis (M.Sc.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

Die fortgeschrittene Phase der Energiewende ist, neben einer zunehmenden Notwendigkeit zur Systemintegration, vor allem geprägt durch das Zutage treten grundsätzlicher Richtungsentscheidungen – der Schwerpunkt verschiebt sich also vom ‚Ob‘ zum ‚Wie‘. Heutige Infrastrukturentscheidungen begründen dabei ganz unterschiedliche Energiezukünfte, welche wiederum über sozio-technische Pfadabhängigkeiten auf Dauer gestellt werden. Die Arbeit rückt zunächst die hierfür maßgeblichen Stellschrauben in den Vordergrund und beleuchtet deren wirtschaftliche und technische Grundlagen sowie die Bandbreite konkurrierender politischer Steuerungsoptionen. Auf dieser Datengrundlage wird im Rahmen einer Clusteranalyse die Aktualisierung des politikfeldspezifischen Akteurskoalitionsmodells vorgeschlagen. Im Mittelpunkt steht dabei die strukturbildende Unterscheidung zwischen einer eher zentralen und einer eher dezentralen Energiezukunft. Die so skizzierte ‚Landkarte der Energiewende‘ ist weiterhin eingebettet in eine Untersuchung des Energiediskurses auf Akteurs- und Medienebene sowie durch eine Politikfeldanalyse, in der aktuelle steuerungspolitische Problemstellungen und Handlungsmuster auf Basis technologischer Fallbeispiele beleuchtet werden. Die Arbeit ist ein Ergebnis der Forschung im interdisziplinären Boysen-TU Dresden Graduiertenkolleg „Nachhaltige Energiesysteme – Interdependenz von technischer Gestaltung und gesellschaftlicher Akzeptanz.“

Text in English / Energy is the natural power stored in matter which can be potential and kinetic energy. This occurs in nature in various forms such as chemical energy, thermal energy, electromagnetic radiation, gravitational energy, electric energy, elastic energy, nuclear energy, and rest energy. The scientific research relating to nuclear energy has revealed that atoms are the foundation of matter. In 1905 Albert Einstein initiated the quantum revolution utilising the Newtonian mass-energy equivalence concept in order to put his famous equation: E =mc2, where energy is (E). This facilitated the nuclear research which focused on manufacturing the first atomic bomb. In 1945 the USA acquired its first two atomic bombs which were dropped on Nagasaki and Hiroshima, killing 200 000 people; mostly civilians. But nuclear energy research has been redirected by scientists in order to industrialise nuclear technology in order to address growing power needs. This encouraged policy makers to consider the risks posed by utilising nuclear energy for civil purposes. The shift towards peaceful nuclear energy applications has been motivated by the many valuable contributions to humankind which nuclear energy offers - for instance in the fields of energy generation, human health, agriculture and industry. The nature of nuclear energy lends itself to becoming an important component of the world energy and global economic system. Nuclear energy is a viable option for many countries including South Africa, because it offers an economic and clean source of electricity; the primary engine for socio-economic development. South Africa operates the only two nuclear power reactors in Africa, (Koeberg 1 and Koeberg 2) generating 1.8 GWe. South Africa’s energy supply infrastructure consists fundamentally of coal-fired power plants which pose serious threats to the environment. Therefore, it is assumed that the planned 9.6 GW of new nuclear capacity by 2030 will meet the requirements of South Africa’s policy regarding the diversification of available energy resources to secure energy supply, support economic growth, and contribute to environmental management. Consequently, the legal system which governs nuclear energy programme is intended to prohibit the proliferation of nuclear weapons, ensure security and maintain the safe operation of nuclear facilities. / Public, Constitutional, & International Law / LL.D.