<p>Promotion of exclusive breastfeeding (EBF), (giving breast milk only without any solids or liquids), has proved to be very challenging in the South African context, although this infant feeding practice has been found to protect babies against diarrhoea and respiratory tract infections and to carry a lower risk of HIV infection than mixed feeding (breastfeeding combined with formula or solids). Study design: The PROMISE-EBF study is a multi-country cluster randomised trial to examine peer support to promote exclusive breastfeeding in Africa. For the South African site in the PROMISE-EBF study, three sites, Paarl, Rietvlei and Umlazi, were selected because of their different geographic settings and each site operated as a separate stratum for cluster selection and randomisation purposes. The clusters were then randomised into intervention and control arms making a total of 17 clusters in each arm. HIV positive and negative women in the intervention arm received support on their choice of infant feeding from the peer supporters who visited them at their homes while the women in the control group only received the standard infant feeding counselling and support provided by health care&nbsp / workers at health facilities. Data collection: Mothers were interviewed at recruitment during the antepartum period to establish eligibility, obtain informed consent and data on socio-economic status. Home visits were scheduled for data collection by trained data collectors at 3, 6, 12 and 24 weeks after birth. Analysis of results: This mini-thesis was a secondary analysis of the PROMISE-EBF data focusing on the South African data only. The data was adjusted for clustering and analysed using SAS. Comparison of variables between the intervention and control groups within sites was done. Results: A significant difference, regarding counselling and infant feeding practices, was observed among all women who received peer support compared to those who received the standard antenatal counselling, with more women in the intervention group (20.5%) practising EBF than those in the control group (12.8%) by Week 3. When the women‟s HIV status was considered, more than 65% of HIV positive and 40% of HIV negative women practised MF and EFF (giving formula milk only with no breast milk) throughout the study, respectively, regardless of the group they were in. For women who hadintended to practise EBF at recruitment, 33% in the control group and 20% in the intervention group actually practised EBF by Week 3. Regarding disclosure and feeding choice, 77.4% of women who had disclosed their HIV status actually practised MF versus 8.6% who practised EBF by Week 3.Conclusion: Community peer counselling should be strengthened as the results from this study showed that a high percentage of women who practised EBF were those who had received counselling, irrespective of their HIV status. The high percentage of HIV positive women who practised high risk feeding, despite receiving infant counselling, is of concern. Disclosure of the women‟s HIV status did not translate to them practising low risk infant feeding methods, which may suggest that there are other issues that determine the women‟s choice of infant feeding.</p>

Exclusive breastfeeding is one of the infant feeding methods recommended by the World Health Organisation (WHO) in the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), especially to HIV positive women of low socio economic status. The purpose of the study was to determine and describe the HIV positive mothers’ perceptions towards exclusive breastfeeding in postnatal ward at a particular hospital in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Qualitative exploratory research design was used to explore and describe the HIV positive mothers’ perceptions towards exclusive breastfeeding. A grand tour question in an unstructured interview was used to collect data, followed by probing questions according to participants’ responses. Data were collected from 15 HIV positive mothers aged 18 years and above. They opted for exclusive breastfeeding, and voice recorder and field notes were used to capture data. The seven steps of data analysis, adapted from Colaizzi were used. The findings: Although the benefits of exclusive breastfeeding was known by mothers, some participants had limited knowledge on the importance of exclusive breastfeeding. Some health care providers lack up-to-date information on exclusive breastfeeding. Religious and cultural practices interfere with exclusive breastfeeding. Coping strategies with the feeding options emerged as well. / Health Studies / M.A. (Nursing Science)

Apesar de existirem evidências suficientes sobre benefícios do aleitamento materno (AM), apenas 35% das crianças são amamentadas exclusivamente até o quarto mês de vida. Visando estender esta prática, OMS/UNICEF lançaram a Iniciativa Hospital Amigo da Criança (IHAC), que estabelece sistema de credenciamento para maternidades de acordo com grau de incentivo ao AM. Esta dissertação pretende investigar a efetividade da IHAC na duração de dois tipos de aleitamento materno: exclusivo (AME) e predominante (AMP) entre crianças usuárias de Unidades Básicas de Saúde (UBS) do Rio de Janeiro. Trata-se de estudo transversal, sendo a população de estudo constituída de 811 mães de crianças menores de 5 meses de idade, selecionadas aleatoriamente em cinco UBS na cidade do Rio de Janeiro. A variável de exposição foi categorizada em local de nascimento ocorridos em HAC, naqueles em vias de receber titulação (EVHAC) e naqueles sem titulação. Os desfechos considerados foram duração do AME e do AMP, que inclui também crianças em AME (AMEP). Na análise dos dados, optou-se pelo modelo log-log complementar, que permitiu recompor experiência longitudinal da coorte através do recordatório alimentar de 7 dias e da informação da idade das mesmas, caracterizando abordagem tipo current status data. Mesmo após controle por variáveis sociodemográficas, relativas ao estilo de vida e aos aspectos psicossociais maternos, à utilização dos serviços de saúde, idade e saúde da criança, houve maior duração do AME e AMEP em crianças nascidas em HAC e EVHAC. As taxas de AME e de AMEP são mais de duas vezes maiores entre recém-nascidos que nasceram em HAC e EVHAC. Tal efeito diminui ao longo da idade da criança, mantendo-se evidente até quatro (EVHAC) e dois (HAC) meses de vida quando se considera AME e até dois (EVHAC) e cinco (HAC) meses quando se considera AMEP. Os resultados confirmam a efetividade da IHAC nesta clientela,especialmente na manutenção de AME e AMEP nos primeiros meses de vida. Estes também sugerem necessidade de fortalecimento da IHAC e maior integração entre maternidades e UBS, visando garantir aleitamento exclusivo até seis meses de vida / Although there are sufficient evidences about breastfeeding (BF) benefits, only 35% of infants worldwide are exclusively breastfed during the first four months of life. As an effort to extend BF duration, WHO/UNICEF launched the Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI), which establishes hospitals accreditation as Baby-Friendly Hospitals (BFH) when it meets the Ten Steps for Successful Breastfeeding. This dissertation aims to investigate the effectiveness of the BFHI on exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) and exclusive plus predominant breastfeeding (EPBF) duration. This is a cross-sectional study with collected information throughout interviews of 811 mothers of children under 5 months old, randomly selected at five health centers in Rio de Janeiro. Exposure variable was classified according to hospitals compliance with the Ten Steps. There were three possible status: accredited hospitals (BFH), working in becoming BFH or certified hospitals (CBFH) and hospitals without BFHI accreditation or certification. Outcomes were EBF and EPBF duration. Data was analyzed by complementary log-log transformation models, which allowed capture cohort longitudinal experience through 7-day feeding recordatory and infants age (current status data). Even after adjusting analysis for sociodemographic, life style and psychological maternal factors, health services use and babies age and state of health, there was longer duration of EBF and EPBF of infants born in BFH and CBFH. EBF and EPBF rates were twice higher in newborns born in BFH and CBFH. This protective effect on EBF and EPBF decreases along childs age and its noticed until four (CBFH) and two (BFH) months of age when EBF is considered and until two (CBFH) and five (EBF) months for EPBF. The finding indicates the effectiveness of BFHI in maintaining EBF and EPBF through the first months of life in this population. In order to extend BF duration until six months of life, as recommended by WHO, it would be necessary not only to strengthen the BFHI but also to develop and encourage more actions in favor of breastfeeding, focusing on primary health care facilities

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Este trabalho teve como objetivos identificar e analisar fatores associados ao aleitamento materno exclusivo, com significância estatística, em crianças menores de quatro meses residentes em Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais. Fornece informações básicas para planejamento de política de amamentação neste município, estudando fatores influentes no desmame e criando Banco de Dados em Aleitamento Materno no Centro de Computação do Núcleo de Assessoria Técnica aos Estudos em Saúde da Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, disponível pára uso público. Compara os resultado desta pesquisa aos de outras cidades brasileiras com estudo de metodologia semelhante. Para atingir os objetivos propostos foi realizada pela autora desta tese uma pesquisa no período de 10 de agosto a 13 de setembro de 2002, época da campanha de vacinação na cidade, em uma amostra por conglomerado, tendo sido entrevistadas 1859 pessoas, sendo 625 mães e acompanhantes de crianças menores de 4 meses, em 24 postos de vacinação. A terminologia empregada deu-se de acordo com a recomendação da OMS (1991). Aplicou-se um questionário por intermédio de 268 entrevistadores voluntários, previamente treinados, incluindo estudantes da área de saúde. A pesquisa fez parte de um estudo multicêntrico em conjunto com o Núcleo de Pesquisas Epidemiológicas em Nutrição e Saúde da Universidade de São Paulo e do Núcleo de Investigação em Saúde da Mulher e da Criança, Instituto de Saúde, Secretaria Estadual de Saúde de São Paulo denominado Avaliação das práticas alimentares no primeiro ano de vida em dias nacionais de vacinação. A análise dos dados foi processada utilizando-se o programa Statiscal Package for The Social Sciences (SPSS) e os resultados foram descritos utilizando-se o teste do qui-quadrado para verificar a significância estatística da associação dos fatores independentes com o fator de desfecho aleitamento materno exclusivo. Para estudar possíveis fatores de confusão foi aplicada a técnica de análise de regressão logística. A pesquisa evidenciou que a prevalência de Aleitamento Materno Exclusivo aos 4 meses é baixa, sendo que esta é menor que as taxas da maioria das capitais brasileiras, com exceção de Cuiabá. Os hábitos de usar chupetas e mamadeiras são muito freqüentes no município. Os fatores de risco para interrupção do aleitamento materno exclusivo até os quatro meses encontrados foram: primiparidade, nascimento em hospital público ou público-privado, não disponibilidade para amamentar, uso de chupetas ou mamadeiras. A maioria das crianças inicia a amamentação no primeiro dia de vida em casa mas não de forma exclusiva. À medida que a idade aumenta, o índice de amamentação vai diminuindo progressivamente, indicando a necessidade urgente de programas de apoio e incentivo ao aleitamento materno, em especial de sua forma exclusiva, bem como de promoção do mesmo no município. Deve ser dada ênfase nesta atenção às mulheres primíparas e àquelas mulheres cujos partos ocorreram em hospitais públicos ou públicos-privados, que não tenham disponibilidade para amamentar e que utilizam mamadeiras ou chupetas para seus filhos. / This work is aimed at the identification and analysis of the factors related to exclusive breast feeding, with statistical significance, among children under the age o four months in Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais. Provides basic information for the making of strategic plans and breast feeding policies in the aforementioned city by studying influent factors in the weaning and by creating the Banco de Dados em Aleitamento Materno in the Centro de Computação do Núcleo de Assessoria Técnica aos Estudos em Saúde da Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, which is available for public use. The results obtained from the present work have been properly compared and contrasted with alike studies from different cities nationwide based on similar methodology. In order to achieve the scopes mentioned, a research from August 10 to September 13 of 2002 was held during the vaccination campaign in the city, in one sample per conglomerate, having being accessed 1859 people, out of which 625 mothers and attendants of children under four months, in 24 Public Health Care Units. The terminology used was in accordance to the 1992 OMS recommendation. The questionnaire was applied by 268 previously trained voluntary interviewers, including undergraduates from the medical careers. The research was part of a multicentric study in association with the Núcleo de Pesquisas Epidemiológicas em Nutrição e Saúde da Universidade de São Paulo and the Núcleo de Investigação em Saúde, Secretaria Estadual de Saúde de São Paulo called Avaliação das práticas alimentares no primeiro ano de vida em dias nacionais de vacinação. The analysis of the data was processed using the Software Statistical Package for The Social Sciences (SPSS) and the description of the results achieved were made through the qui-quadrado test to verify the statistical significance of the association between the independent factors with the closing factor in terms of exclusive breast feeding. In order to study the different confusion factors, the regressive logistics technique was applied. The research revealed that the Prevalence of Exclusive Maternal Breastfeeding at the age of four months is low, being the lowest among all Brazilian capitals, expect for Cuiabá. The use of rubber nipple and nursing bottle is very frequent in the city. The risk factors to the interruption of the exclusive maternal breastfeeding under the age of four months are: first-time mothers, birth in public of private-public hospitals, unavailability to breastfeed, use of rubber nipple or nursing bottle. The majority of kids begins their breastfeeding on the first day at home, although not exclusively. As the age progress, there is a progressive decrease in the breastfeeding levels, which indicates the timely need of breastfeeding supportive programs, especially in its exclusive format, as well as its promotion in the city. Emphasis should be given, one, to firsttime mothers, and two, to those mothers who gave birth in public and private-public hospitals, who are not available to breastfeed and make use of rubber nipple and nursing bottle to their children.

Apesar de existirem evidências suficientes sobre benefícios do aleitamento materno (AM), apenas 35% das crianças são amamentadas exclusivamente até o quarto mês de vida. Visando estender esta prática, OMS/UNICEF lançaram a Iniciativa Hospital Amigo da Criança (IHAC), que estabelece sistema de credenciamento para maternidades de acordo com grau de incentivo ao AM. Esta dissertação pretende investigar a efetividade da IHAC na duração de dois tipos de aleitamento materno: exclusivo (AME) e predominante (AMP) entre crianças usuárias de Unidades Básicas de Saúde (UBS) do Rio de Janeiro. Trata-se de estudo transversal, sendo a população de estudo constituída de 811 mães de crianças menores de 5 meses de idade, selecionadas aleatoriamente em cinco UBS na cidade do Rio de Janeiro. A variável de exposição foi categorizada em local de nascimento ocorridos em HAC, naqueles em vias de receber titulação (EVHAC) e naqueles sem titulação. Os desfechos considerados foram duração do AME e do AMP, que inclui também crianças em AME (AMEP). Na análise dos dados, optou-se pelo modelo log-log complementar, que permitiu recompor experiência longitudinal da coorte através do recordatório alimentar de 7 dias e da informação da idade das mesmas, caracterizando abordagem tipo current status data. Mesmo após controle por variáveis sociodemográficas, relativas ao estilo de vida e aos aspectos psicossociais maternos, à utilização dos serviços de saúde, idade e saúde da criança, houve maior duração do AME e AMEP em crianças nascidas em HAC e EVHAC. As taxas de AME e de AMEP são mais de duas vezes maiores entre recém-nascidos que nasceram em HAC e EVHAC. Tal efeito diminui ao longo da idade da criança, mantendo-se evidente até quatro (EVHAC) e dois (HAC) meses de vida quando se considera AME e até dois (EVHAC) e cinco (HAC) meses quando se considera AMEP. Os resultados confirmam a efetividade da IHAC nesta clientela,especialmente na manutenção de AME e AMEP nos primeiros meses de vida. Estes também sugerem necessidade de fortalecimento da IHAC e maior integração entre maternidades e UBS, visando garantir aleitamento exclusivo até seis meses de vida / Although there are sufficient evidences about breastfeeding (BF) benefits, only 35% of infants worldwide are exclusively breastfed during the first four months of life. As an effort to extend BF duration, WHO/UNICEF launched the Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI), which establishes hospitals accreditation as Baby-Friendly Hospitals (BFH) when it meets the Ten Steps for Successful Breastfeeding. This dissertation aims to investigate the effectiveness of the BFHI on exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) and exclusive plus predominant breastfeeding (EPBF) duration. This is a cross-sectional study with collected information throughout interviews of 811 mothers of children under 5 months old, randomly selected at five health centers in Rio de Janeiro. Exposure variable was classified according to hospitals compliance with the Ten Steps. There were three possible status: accredited hospitals (BFH), working in becoming BFH or certified hospitals (CBFH) and hospitals without BFHI accreditation or certification. Outcomes were EBF and EPBF duration. Data was analyzed by complementary log-log transformation models, which allowed capture cohort longitudinal experience through 7-day feeding recordatory and infants age (current status data). Even after adjusting analysis for sociodemographic, life style and psychological maternal factors, health services use and babies age and state of health, there was longer duration of EBF and EPBF of infants born in BFH and CBFH. EBF and EPBF rates were twice higher in newborns born in BFH and CBFH. This protective effect on EBF and EPBF decreases along childs age and its noticed until four (CBFH) and two (BFH) months of age when EBF is considered and until two (CBFH) and five (EBF) months for EPBF. The finding indicates the effectiveness of BFHI in maintaining EBF and EPBF through the first months of life in this population. In order to extend BF duration until six months of life, as recommended by WHO, it would be necessary not only to strengthen the BFHI but also to develop and encourage more actions in favor of breastfeeding, focusing on primary health care facilities

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Este trabalho teve como objetivos identificar e analisar fatores associados ao aleitamento materno exclusivo, com significância estatística, em crianças menores de quatro meses residentes em Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais. Fornece informações básicas para planejamento de política de amamentação neste município, estudando fatores influentes no desmame e criando Banco de Dados em Aleitamento Materno no Centro de Computação do Núcleo de Assessoria Técnica aos Estudos em Saúde da Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, disponível pára uso público. Compara os resultado desta pesquisa aos de outras cidades brasileiras com estudo de metodologia semelhante. Para atingir os objetivos propostos foi realizada pela autora desta tese uma pesquisa no período de 10 de agosto a 13 de setembro de 2002, época da campanha de vacinação na cidade, em uma amostra por conglomerado, tendo sido entrevistadas 1859 pessoas, sendo 625 mães e acompanhantes de crianças menores de 4 meses, em 24 postos de vacinação. A terminologia empregada deu-se de acordo com a recomendação da OMS (1991). Aplicou-se um questionário por intermédio de 268 entrevistadores voluntários, previamente treinados, incluindo estudantes da área de saúde. A pesquisa fez parte de um estudo multicêntrico em conjunto com o Núcleo de Pesquisas Epidemiológicas em Nutrição e Saúde da Universidade de São Paulo e do Núcleo de Investigação em Saúde da Mulher e da Criança, Instituto de Saúde, Secretaria Estadual de Saúde de São Paulo denominado Avaliação das práticas alimentares no primeiro ano de vida em dias nacionais de vacinação. A análise dos dados foi processada utilizando-se o programa Statiscal Package for The Social Sciences (SPSS) e os resultados foram descritos utilizando-se o teste do qui-quadrado para verificar a significância estatística da associação dos fatores independentes com o fator de desfecho aleitamento materno exclusivo. Para estudar possíveis fatores de confusão foi aplicada a técnica de análise de regressão logística. A pesquisa evidenciou que a prevalência de Aleitamento Materno Exclusivo aos 4 meses é baixa, sendo que esta é menor que as taxas da maioria das capitais brasileiras, com exceção de Cuiabá. Os hábitos de usar chupetas e mamadeiras são muito freqüentes no município. Os fatores de risco para interrupção do aleitamento materno exclusivo até os quatro meses encontrados foram: primiparidade, nascimento em hospital público ou público-privado, não disponibilidade para amamentar, uso de chupetas ou mamadeiras. A maioria das crianças inicia a amamentação no primeiro dia de vida em casa mas não de forma exclusiva. À medida que a idade aumenta, o índice de amamentação vai diminuindo progressivamente, indicando a necessidade urgente de programas de apoio e incentivo ao aleitamento materno, em especial de sua forma exclusiva, bem como de promoção do mesmo no município. Deve ser dada ênfase nesta atenção às mulheres primíparas e àquelas mulheres cujos partos ocorreram em hospitais públicos ou públicos-privados, que não tenham disponibilidade para amamentar e que utilizam mamadeiras ou chupetas para seus filhos. / This work is aimed at the identification and analysis of the factors related to exclusive breast feeding, with statistical significance, among children under the age o four months in Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais. Provides basic information for the making of strategic plans and breast feeding policies in the aforementioned city by studying influent factors in the weaning and by creating the Banco de Dados em Aleitamento Materno in the Centro de Computação do Núcleo de Assessoria Técnica aos Estudos em Saúde da Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, which is available for public use. The results obtained from the present work have been properly compared and contrasted with alike studies from different cities nationwide based on similar methodology. In order to achieve the scopes mentioned, a research from August 10 to September 13 of 2002 was held during the vaccination campaign in the city, in one sample per conglomerate, having being accessed 1859 people, out of which 625 mothers and attendants of children under four months, in 24 Public Health Care Units. The terminology used was in accordance to the 1992 OMS recommendation. The questionnaire was applied by 268 previously trained voluntary interviewers, including undergraduates from the medical careers. The research was part of a multicentric study in association with the Núcleo de Pesquisas Epidemiológicas em Nutrição e Saúde da Universidade de São Paulo and the Núcleo de Investigação em Saúde, Secretaria Estadual de Saúde de São Paulo called Avaliação das práticas alimentares no primeiro ano de vida em dias nacionais de vacinação. The analysis of the data was processed using the Software Statistical Package for The Social Sciences (SPSS) and the description of the results achieved were made through the qui-quadrado test to verify the statistical significance of the association between the independent factors with the closing factor in terms of exclusive breast feeding. In order to study the different confusion factors, the regressive logistics technique was applied. The research revealed that the Prevalence of Exclusive Maternal Breastfeeding at the age of four months is low, being the lowest among all Brazilian capitals, expect for Cuiabá. The use of rubber nipple and nursing bottle is very frequent in the city. The risk factors to the interruption of the exclusive maternal breastfeeding under the age of four months are: first-time mothers, birth in public of private-public hospitals, unavailability to breastfeed, use of rubber nipple or nursing bottle. The majority of kids begins their breastfeeding on the first day at home, although not exclusively. As the age progress, there is a progressive decrease in the breastfeeding levels, which indicates the timely need of breastfeeding supportive programs, especially in its exclusive format, as well as its promotion in the city. Emphasis should be given, one, to firsttime mothers, and two, to those mothers who gave birth in public and private-public hospitals, who are not available to breastfeed and make use of rubber nipple and nursing bottle to their children.

Magister Public Health - MPH / Promotion of exclusive breastfeeding (EBF), (giving breast milk only without any solids or liquids), has proved to be very challenging in the South African context, although this infant feeding practice has been found to protect babies against diarrhoea and respiratory tract infections and to carry a lower risk of HIV infection than mixed feeding (breastfeeding combined with formula or solids). Study design: The PROMISE-EBF study is a multi-country cluster randomised trial to examine peer support to promote exclusive breastfeeding in Africa. For the South African site in the PROMISE-EBF study, three sites, Paarl, Rietvlei and Umlazi, were selected because of their different geographic settings and each site operated as a separate stratum for cluster selection and randomisation purposes. The clusters were then randomised into intervention and control arms making a total of 17 clusters in each arm. HIV positive and negative women in the intervention arm received support on their choice of infant feeding from the peer supporters who visited them at their homes while the women in the control group only received the standard infant feeding counselling and support provided by health care workers at health facilities. Data collection: Mothers were interviewed at recruitment during the antepartum period to establish eligibility, obtain informed consent and data on socio-economic status. Home visits were scheduled for data collection by trained data collectors at 3, 6, 12 and 24 weeks after birth. Analysis of results: This mini-thesis was a secondary analysis of the PROMISE-EBF data focusing on the South African data only. The data was adjusted for clustering and analysed using SAS. Comparison of variables between the intervention and control groups within sites was done. Results: A significant difference, regarding counselling and infant feeding practices, was observed among all women who received peer support compared to those who received the standard antenatal counselling, with more women in the intervention group (20.5%) practising EBF than those in the control group (12.8%) by Week 3. When the women's HIV status was considered, more than 65% of HIV positive and 40% of HIV negative women practised MF and EFF (giving formula milk only with no breast milk) throughout the study, respectively, regardless of the group they were in. For women who hadintended to practise EBF at recruitment, 33% in the control group and 20% in the intervention group actually practised EBF by Week 3. Regarding disclosure and feeding choice, 77.4% of women who had disclosed their HIV status actually practised MF versus 8.6% who practised EBF by Week 3.Conclusion: Community peer counselling should be strengthened as the results from this study showed that a high percentage of women who practised EBF were those who had received counselling, irrespective of their HIV status. The high percentage of HIV positive women who practised high risk feeding, despite receiving infant counselling, is of concern. Disclosure of the women's HIV status did not translate to them practising low risk infant feeding methods, which may suggest that there are other issues that determine the women's choice of infant feeding. / South Africa

Magister Scientiae (Biodiversity and Conservation Biology) - MSc (Biodiv and Cons Biol) / W.H.O infant feeding options are presented as a package in the prevention of HIV transmission from mother to child. These infant feeding options are namely exclusive breastfeeding, replacement feeding and other options such as wet nursing by a tested HIV negative woman and heat treated breast milk. However, in Zambia, like many other poor countries, the cultural attitude towards breastfeeding is that the breastfeeding period generally goes up to two years. This traditional way of feeding is so much rooted in local culture that any cessation of breastfeeding or any introduction of alternative feeding would be a source of concern at community and family levels. In addition, it is a well known fact that stigma and discrimination are still high in the country. It is with this background that we decided to carry out a study in Mongu district which aimed at assessing HIV positive mothers’ knowledge of WHO infant feeding options and looking at the challenges they face vis-à-vis these recommended feeding options. DATA COLLECTION METHODS A total of 10 experienced nurses, who have been working in the HIV/AIDS programme for more than 15 years, were trained in data collection. During home visit, semistructured questionnaires were used during face- to- face interviews of each HIV positive mother who voluntarily took part in the study. SAMPLING AND SAMPLE SIZE Systematic sampling technique was used to constitute our study sample. With this technique, a complete list of 5317 HIV positive mothers was constituted by listing all HIV positive mothers whose names were in the registers of PMTCT at the selected health institutions, and who had infants whose ages ranged from 6 months to 2 years. 1636 HIV positive mothers had babies whose ages were ranging between 6 months and 2 years. Out of the 1636 we selected randomly the first participant from the complete list, and then we went on selecting every 8th HIV positive mother up to the time we constituted a sample of 200 participants. Thereafter, the selected HIV positive mothers were visited individually in their respective households for interview by trained interviewers. During home visit, 5 selected participants declined to take part in our study while 195 HIV mothers voluntarily accepted to be interviewed. RESULTS Analysis of data collected from 195 HIV positive mothers revealed that 144 study participants or 73.8 %( 95% C I 67.6-80%) of all participants knew their status through the PMTCT programme where the “opt out” approach was used to routinely screen pregnant women for HIV during ante natal visit or when admitted to labour wards. It was also established that the assessment of knowledge among study participants of exclusive breastfeeding period was good. 96.9 %( 95% CI 95.66-98.14%) of participants stated that 6 months was the recommended duration for exclusive breastfeeding when the mother is HIV positive while only 3.07 %( 95% CI 0.65-5.49%) said that exclusive breastfeeding should go beyond 6 months. It was discovered that the majority of HIV positive mothers or 166 participants representing 85.1%(95% CI 80.1-90.1%) who participated in our study considered mixed- feeding as not appropriate for infant born from HIV positive mothers while 29 participants or 14.8%(95% CI 9.8-19.8%) said that mixed feeding was recommendable. It was also found that 95 participants representing 48.7 %( 95% CI 41.6- 55.7%) opted for exclusive breastfeeding, 61 participants or 31.2% (95% CI 24.7-37.7%) participants opted for formula milk while 39 or 20 %( 95% CI 14.4- 25.6%) of participants were mixed-feeding. It was discovered that 118 participants had breastfed. Among them, 53.4 %( 95% CI 46.4-60.4%) participants said that they had breastfeed for up to 6 months while 46.6 %( 95% CI 43-50.2%) said they had breastfeed for more than 6 months. Among those who had breastfed for more than 6 months, 58.1 %( 95% CI 54.6-61.6%) said that they had done so because of financial constraints; 21.8 %( 95% CI 16-27.6%) for fear of discrimination and stigmatization; and 20 %( 95% CI 14.4-25.6%) for fear of discrimination and stigmatization and financial constraints. We also discovered during our research that for the majority of study participants or 81.5%, the decision to opt for one of the infant feeding options was a product of discussion between the HIV positive mothers and other persons such as the husband, friends, relatives and health care provider. CONCLUSION In our study we discovered that though the knowledge of PMTCT and WHO infant feeding options among study participants was good, fear of stigmatization, discrimination and abandonment was high among interviewees. This fear explains why the implementation of WHO infant feeding options is still a serious challenge amongst HIV positive mothers in Mongu, as many HIV positive mothers do not want to be seen in the community as people carrying the virus. It is also for the same reason that our study participants had to choose people to whom to talk to about their HIV positive status and with who to discuss their chosen infant feeding options. Further, due to the high level of poverty among Mongu residents, financial constraint was another major challenge in the implementation of WHO recommended infants feeding options.

PhDPH / Department of Public Health / The benefits of breastfeeding, particularly exclusive breastfeeding, are well recognized. It can reduce the risk of mortality related to malnutrition, otitis media and respiratory infection. Breastfeeding may also decrease the risk of obesity in later life for infants who have been breastfed for more than six months. Besides, breastfeeding improves cognition, and children who have been breastfed show higher intelligence quotient test scores and improved school performance. In addition, long-period breastfeeding is associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer and ovarian cancer for mothers. The World Health Organization and United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund recommended exclusive breastfeeding for six months and breastfeeding to two years and beyond. However, this study showed that only 27% of children under six months have had been exclusively breastfed. In this situation, an intervention programme was required. The aim of this study was to develop an intervention programme to promote exclusive breastfeeding strategies in Limpopo Province. Intervention mapping was used to guide the development of a programme. A convergent, parallel mixed-method was used wherein qualitative and quantitative data were collected and analysed concurrently. A qualitative approach was used to assess the implementation of exclusive breastfeeding and to explore challenges experienced by health care workers in the implementation of exclusive breastfeeding in Limpopo Province. This was carried out by means of in-depth interviews with 30 professional nurses. Trustworthiness was ensured through credibility, confirmability, dependability and transferability. A quantitative approach was used to determine the factors that influence exclusive breastfeeding. Reliability and validity of the instrument was ensured through extensive literature review and test-retest methodology. Questionnaires were distributed to 400 respondents. Tesch’s eight steps of data analysis was used to analyse qualitative data. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, version 26, was used to analyse the quantitative data. The results were merged, and the interpretation discussed. Five higher-order themes emerged from quantitative data analysis. The themes emerged from qualitative data were confirmed by the findings from statistical data, thus merging both qualitative and quantitative data. Findings were presented to the stakeholders, managers and dieticians and their inputs further confirmed and supported the findings. The findings informed the development of an intervention programme. The intervention comprises of the three components, training of community health workers, healths talks focusing on lactating mothers and health talks focusing on families and community. The developed intervention was validated by the stakeholders and the results were analysed through simple descriptive statistics where the data were summarized using frequency distributions and graphic representations. The results revealed that the programme was feasible, compatible and applicable to current practice. Recommendations were made and topics for further research were also suggested. / NRF

Introducción: Durante los primeros días de vida la madre es la principal fuente de alimento para el recién nacido. Sin embargo, es común que la madre presente trastornos de la lactancia y se genere una pérdida de peso neonatal mayor a la fisiológica. Objetivo: Estimar la magnitud y asociación entre los trastornos de la lactancia y la pérdida de peso neonatal mayor a la fisiológica en neonatos en el área de alojamiento conjunto de un servicio de neonatología en un hospital de la seguridad social en Lima, Perú. Métodos: Estudio de tipo transversal analítico. Registramos el peso neonatal en una evaluación de rutina (entre las 24 y 72 horas de vida) y lo comparamos con el peso al nacer. La pérdida de peso excesiva fue definida como una diferencia igual o mayor al 7%. Mediante una encuesta y verificación visual investigamos los trastornos de la lactancia materna (retraso en el inicio, posición de la boca, duración de la lactancia, frecuencia de la lactancia, sobreabrigo, dolor en el pezón y forma de la C). La asociación entre la pérdida de peso excesiva y los trastornos, ajustada por otros factores, fue cuantificada mediante un modelo linear generalizado múltiple. Resultados: En 18,8% (74/393) de los neonatos, la pérdida de peso excesiva fue igual o mayor al 7% del peso al nacer. La posición inadecuada de la boca en el pezón estuvo presente en 53,7% (211/393) de los neonatos mientras que el dolor en el pezón fue reportado en 44,0 (173/393). En el análisis ajustado, el dolor en el pezón [RP=1,50(IC95%:1,02-2,22)] y la posición inadecuada de la boca [RP=1,67(IC95%:1,09-2,57)] estuvieron asociados a una mayor ocurrencia de pérdida peso excesiva. Conclusiones: Los trastornos de la lactancia son comunes. Estos factores están directa y positivamente asociados a una mayor ocurrencia de pérdida de peso excesiva. La introducción de mejoras en las prácticas de lactancia, por ejemplo mediante programas educativos, podría disminuir la ocurrencia de pérdida de peso neonatal excesiva. / Introduction: During the first days of life the mother is the main source of nutrients for the newborn. However, breastfeeding difficulties are common and may generate excessive neonatal weight loss. Objective: Estimate the magnitude and association between breastfeeding problems and excessive neonatal weight loss beyond the physiological norm in the neonatology ward in a social security hospital in Lima, Peru Methods: We conducted a cross sectional analysis of the recorded neonatal weight in a routine evaluation (between 24 and 72 hours of life) and compared it against birth weight. Excessive weight loss was defined as a difference greater than or equal to 7 %. Breastfeeding problems (defined as problems with breastfeeding initiation, mouth position, breastfeeding duration, breastfeeding frequency, too much clothing, nipple pain and C form) were investigated using a survey and visual verification. The association between excessive weight loss and breastfeeding problems, adjusted by other factors, was quantified using a multiple generalized linear model. Results: Excessive weight loss was present in 18.8% (74/393) of the newborns. Improper positioning of the mouth on the nipple was present in 53.7% (211/393) of neonates while nipple pain was reported by 44.0% (173/393) of mothers. In the adjusted analysis, nipple pain [PR = 1.50 (95% CI: 1.02 to 2.22)] and improper positioning of the mouth [PR = 1.67 (95% CI: 1.09- 2.57)] were associated with an increased occurrence of excessive neonatal weight loss. Conclusions: Breastfeeding problems are common. These difficulties are significantly associated with an increased occurrence of excessive neonatal weight loss. Improvements in breastfeeding practices, for example through educational programs, may decrease the occurrence of excessive neonatal weight loss. / Tesis