Woodbe Engineering AB is a freshly started company that has developed a new type of joint for cross-laminated timber (CLT). The joint does not include any metallic fasteners, which improves sustainability, the ergonomics for the workers and time efficiency. The joint is designed to connect floor and wall elements in multi-storey buildings, by milling a dovetail in the floor element, and a fitting track in the wall element using a CNC machine. Before the product can be used on the market, it needs to be verified. This verification can either be done using physical tests, calculations, or a combination of both. The company has performed experimental small-scale tests, where the load-bearing capacity was tested. Later this year, large scale tests are to be performed. The purpose of this work is to develop a simulation model that can predict the results of the physical test. A simulation model that yields accurate results can be a good substitution for physical testing, due to a lower cost, better time efficiency, and parameters that can easily be changed. CLT is made up of several layers of wooden plates with different directions. The wood itself is quite complex to model. It has different properties in different directions, both ductile and brittle fracture modes and a large scatter of material properties. To capture this behaviour, a material model which incorporates orthotropic elasticity with linear fracture mechanics has been used. The behaviour of the material model has been evaluated with tests in both tension and compression in different directions. The accuracy of the material model was investigated by a simulation of the small-scale tests where the load-bearing capacity and the mode of fracture was investigated. A simulation of the large-scale experiment has also been conducted, where predictions of the load-bearing capacity and the first mode of failure was investigated. Also, a calculation script has been developed, which calculates the shear stress in the dovetail.  The results of the simulations clearly show the capability of the material model. Load-displacement graphs show ductile and brittle behaviour in compression and tension respectively. The strength is the highest along the fibres of the wood, with a fast decrease as the angle is increased. The simulation of the small-scale tests showed the initiation of rolling shear damage in the bottom transverse layer of the dovetail at a load level of 87 kN. The load continued to rise until a maximum load of 112 kN, while the damaged region grew upwards into the next layer. As compared to the physical tests, the mean maximum capacity of the joint was 125 kN, where rolling shear cracks could be found in the upper transverse layer in all tested specimens. Some of the tested specimens showed damage initiation at a load level of 84 kN. For the larger experiment, the same mode of damage was initiated at a load level of 161 kN which continued to rise until a maximum load level of 165 kN. The calculated values of the shear stress showed a critical shear force of 26 kN per dovetail. This value is 60 and 63 % of the simulated critical shear forces. The results of the simulation are in good agreement with the reference experiment in terms of damage initiation and maximum load. However, a large scatter of material properties, approximations of material orientations and interactions between individual layers results in a low level of predictability in terms of damage evolution and ductility in the material. / Woodbe Engineering AB är ett nystartat företag som har utvecklat en ny typ av knutpunkt för korslimmat trä (KLT). Förbandet innefattar inga metalliska förbindare, vilket förbättrar hållbarheten, ergonomin för arbetarna och tidseffektiviteten. Förbandet är konstruerat för att binda samman golv- och väggelement i flervåningsbyggnader, genom att fräsa tappar i golvelementen och motsvarande spår i väggelementen med hjälp av en CNC-maskin. Innan produkten kan användas på marknaden, behöver den verifieras. Verifikationen kan antingen ske genom fysiska tester eller beräkningar, alternativt en kombination av båda. Företaget har gjort experimentella tester i mindre skala där bärförmågan provades. Senare i år ska prover i större skala utföras. Syftet med arbetet är att utveckla en simuleringsmodell som kan förutspå resultaten hos de fysiska proverna. En simuleringsmodell som ger tillförlitliga resultat kan vara ett bra substitut till fysiska prover genom en lägre kostnad, de är mer tidseffektiva och parametrar kan enkelt ändras. KLT är uppbyggt av flera lager av träskivor med olika riktningar. Träet själv är relativt komplext att modellera. Det har olika egenskaper i olika riktningar, samtidiga duktila och spröda brottmoder och har en stor spridning av materialegenskaper. För att fånga upp dessa egenskaper, har en materialmodell som innefattar ortotrop elasticitet och linjär brottmekanik använts. Beteendet hos materialmodellen har utvärderats med tester i både drag och tryck i olika riktningar. Noggrannheten hos materialmodellen har undersökts genom en simulering av redan testade småskaleprover, där bärförmågan och brottmoden undersöktes. En simulering av fullskaleproverna har också gjorts, där en förutsägelse av bärförmågan och den första brottmoden har gjorts. Dessutom har ett beräkningsskript tagits fram som beräknar skjuvspänningen i tappen. Resultaten av simuleringarna visar tydligt förmågan hos materialmodellen. Kraft-förskjutningskurvor visar duktila och spröda beteenden i tryck respektive drag. Hållfastheten är högst i fiberriktningen, med en snabb minskning när vinkeln till fibrerna ökar. Simuleringen av småskaleproverna visade initiering av rullskjuvningsbrott i det undre tvärgående lagret i tappen vid en last av 87 kN. Lasten ökade till den maximala lasten 112 kN, medan det skadade området växte uppåt in i nästa lager. I jämförelse med de fysiska testerna var den maximala medellasten 125 kN, och rullskjuvningssprickor i det övre tvärgående lagret kunde hittas i alla provexemplar. Några av de provade exemplaren visade brottinitiering vid en last av 84 kN. Simuleringen av den större uppställningen visade samma typ av brottinitiering vid en last av 161 kN som ökade till en maximal last av 165 kN. Beräknade värden av skjuvspänning i tappen visade en kritisk skjuvkraft av 26 kN per tapp. Detta värde är 60 och 63 % av de simulerade kritiska skjuvkrafterna. Resultatet av simuleringen stämmer bra överens med referensexperimentet gällande brottinitiering och maxkapacitet. Dock, på grund av en stor spridning av materialegenskaper, approximationer gällande materialriktningar och samverkan mellan individuella lager, är nivån av förutsägbarhet låg gällande brottillväxt och duktilitet i materialet.

A finite element (FE) model for the generation of single fiber action potentials (SFAPs) in a muscle undergoing various degrees of fiber shortening has been developed. The muscle is assumed to be fusiform with muscle fibers following a curvilinear path described by a Gaussian function. Different degrees of fiber shortening are simulated by changing the parameters of the fiber path and maintaining the volume of the muscle constant. The conductivity tensor is adapted to the muscle fiber orientation. At each point of the volume conductor, the conductivity of the muscle tissue in the direction of the fiber is larger than that in the transversal direction. Thus, the conductivity tensor changes point-by-point with fiber shortening, adapting to the fiber paths. An analytical derivation of the conductivity tensor is provided. The volume conductor is then studied with an FE approach using the analytically derived conductivity tensor (Mesin, Joubert, Hanekom, Merletti&Farina 2006). Representative simulations of SFAPs with the muscle at different degrees of shortening are presented. It is shown that the geometrical changes in the muscle, which imply changes in the conductivity tensor, determine important variations in action potential shape, thus affecting its amplitude and frequency content. The model is expanded to include the simulation of motor unit action potentials (MUAPs). Expanding the model was done by assigning each single fiber (SF) in the motor unit (MU) a random starting position chosen from a normal distribution. For the model 300 SFs are included in an MU, with an innervation zone spread of 12 mm. Only spatial distribution was implemented. Conduction velocity (CV) was the same for all fibers of the MU. Representative simulations for the MUAPs with the muscle at different degrees of shortening are presented. The influence of interelectrode distance and angular displacement are also investigated as well as the influence of the inclusion of the conductivity tensor. It has been found that the interpretation of surface electromyography during movement or joint angle change is complicated owing to geometrical artefacts i.e. the shift of the electrodes relative to the muscle fibers and also because of the changes in the conductive properties of the tissue separating the electrode from the muscle fibers. Detection systems and electrode placement should be chosen with care. The model provides a new tool for interpreting surface electromyography (sEMG) signal features with changes in muscle geometry, as happens during dynamic contractions. / Dissertation (MEng (Bio-Engineering))--University of Pretoria, 2008. / Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering / MEng (Bio-Engineering) / unrestricted

Understanding how different parameters affect the dynamic response of high-speed railway bridges is crucial to selecting an efficient structural form. Despite existing numerous publications within this field, only few address the importance of torsional deformations. The main objective of this thesis is to investigate the influence of the torsional resistance of the deck on the dynamic response of an existing bridge. Ulla River Viaduct is presented as a case study, allowing to analyse some aspects of its design and what their alteration entails. To this end, 6 different 3D FE models are compared, 5 of which show a modification from the original configuration. In addition, several positions of the train are considered to contrast the effects when the torsional modes are excited. The performed dynamic calculations are based on the implicit direct integration procedure. The analysis of the case study demonstrates the benefit of closing the torsional circuit of the deck. The results also evidence the need of including torsional effects in its dynamic assessment when low values of torsional rigidity are considered. All this is not easy when simplified 2D or 3D beam models are used. As a final remark, the original design of the Ulla River Viaduct is found highly efficient from a dynamical point of view.

The Swedish truck industry is looking for new material solutions to achieve lighter engines with increased strength to meet customer demands and to fulfil the new regulations for more environmentally friendly trucks. This could be achieved by increasing the peak pressure in the cylinders. Consequently, a more efficient combustion is obtained and the exhaust lowered. This, however, exposes the engine to higher loads and material physical properties must therefore be enhanced. One material that could meet these demands is Compacted Graphite Iron (CGI). Its mechanical and physical properties make it ideal as cylinder block material, though there are drawbacks concerning its machinability as compared to other materials that are commonly used for the same purpose. Knowledge about machining of the material and its machinability is consequently inadequate. The main goal of this thesis is to identify and investigate the effect of the major factors and their individual contributions on CGI machining process behaviour. When the relationship between the fundamental features; machinability, material microstructure, and material physical properties, are revealed, the CGI material can be optimized, both regarding the manufacturing process and design requirements. The basic understanding of this is developed mainly through experimental analysis as, e.g., machining experiments and material characterization. The machining model presented in this thesis demonstrates the influence of material and process parameters on CGI machinability. It highlights machinability from both design and production planning perspectives. Another important objective of the thesis is an inverse thermo−mechanical FE model for intermittent machining of CGI. Here, experimental results obtained from a developed simulated milling method are used as input data, both to calibrate and validate the model. With these models, a deeper understanding is obtained regarding the way to achieve a stable process, which is the basis for future optimization procedures. The models can therefore be used as a foundation for the optimization of CGI component manufacturing. / <p>QC 20111121</p> / MERA - OPTIMA CGI / FFI - OPTIMA phase two

The flexural performance of composite systems made of reinforced concrete, Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRPs) and adhesives was studied during the current research. The experimental investigation was principally concentrated on the potential use of Kevlar® 49 (aramid fibre) for RC beam strengthening. The main aims of research have been; (a) to investigate the relative merits of using Aramids in comparison to other FRPs, (b) strength optimisation of systems to prevent excessive losses of ductility, (c) to examine the failure mode and crack patterns, together with salient strength factors at ultimate limit state and (d) to carry out analytical modelling using a commercial FE package. The experimental investigation comprised of testing 55 simply supported RC beams of either 1.5m or 2.6m length. In addition to the parametric studies included in points (a)-(d) above (to assess the section characteristics), further experimentation was conducted to investigate the beam performance by varying the factors of; (e) beam shear span, (f) FRP anchorage length, (g) concrete surface preparation, (h) FRP end-anchoring, (i) beam precracking, (j) introduction of air-voids within the bond line of FRP/concrete, (k) influence of cyclic loading and, (1) exposure to aggressive environment. The results from current tests confirm elements of reports from other researchers (by thorough review of literature) that all FRPs have great potential for flexural strengthening of RC members. This is valid even in cases where additional environmental degradation and/or cracking (due to serviceability loads), had taken place. Aramid fibres were found to result in favourable outcomes concerning both strength and ductility enhancements. It was determined, both from experiments and non-linear modelling, that the amount of FRP fibre content is an important factor in every strengthening application. Experimentation showed that depending on the existing condition of the structure (concrete strength, internal reinforcement ratio, section dimensions, degradation level and load configuration), there seems to be a unique level of optimum fibre content. The FRP levels in excess of the optimum were seen to lead to premature brittle tearing-off failure modes. It was also found that to prevent premature beam failure (due to incompatibility of stress at concrete and FRP interface), a maximum possible anchorage length should be considered in order to deliver an optimum section performance. The results from the analytical modelling indicated a most satisfactory agreement with the experimental data after the initial mechanical properties were calibrated. It was found that actual representation of material properties (e.g. steel constitutive law) are of great significance, for an accurate modelling of RC element loaded behaviour. The bond developed between the FRP and concrete is one of the key parameters for achieving good performance of the systems. It was determined that concrete surface preparation and priming is beneficial, while the introduction of air-voids due to poor workmanship can reduce the section load bearing capabilities. Cyclic loading on FRP strengthened sections was found to curtail the full rotational capacity utilisation of the beam. However, even the above mentioned curtailed behaviour was more advantageous than cyclically loaded beam performance without FRP strengthening.

L’objectif de ce travail est de proposer une méthodologie simple pour évaluer l’intégrité et la durée de vie d’échangeurs thermiques soudés. Une approche à deux échelles est proposée. Une description macroscopique avec la prise en compte de la structure de l’échangeur est menée pour permettre des calculs thermoélastiques par éléments finis. La réponse mécanique de l’échangeur pour deschargements thermiques, cycliques, simples est évaluée. Notamment, les zones de concentration decontraintes sont repérées. A partir cette étude, une étude micromécanique du comportement dumatériau composant l’échangeur est menée. Le matériau considéré est un acier 316L. Soncomportement élastoplastique est identifié avec un écrouissage isotrope et cinématique. La tenuemécanique pour des chargements en fatigue oligocyclique est évaluée à l’aide d’un dispositif deflexion 4 points alternée et un critère de Manson-Coffin est identifié. Ce critère est utilisé pour évaluerle nombre de cycle admissible par l’échangeur pour une amplitude de chargement donnée. Pour cela,la déformation plastique attendue dans l’échangeur est évaluée à partir d’une équivalence en énergieaux endroits où la contrainte se concentre. Les prédictions du modèle ont été comparées de manièresatisfaisante avec les résultats expérimentaux menés sur un échangeur test, pour la réponsethermoélastique que pour l’évaluation du nombre de cycles à rupture. / This study proposes a simple methodology to estimate the mechanical response and lifetime of weldedheat exchangers subjected to thermal loadings. The structure of the heat exchanger is modeled toestimate its mechanical response for thermal loads. Thermoelastic calculations are carried out with thefinite elements method. From these simulations, the regions where the stress concentrates areidentified. Then, a micromechanics approach is adopted to identify the material’s elastic plasticresponse with isotropic and kinematic hardening. Its durability under oligocyclic fatigue isinvestigated with an original 4 points alternate bending.d vice. From these experiments, a Manson-Coffin criterion is identified. This criterion is used to estimate the heat exchangers lifetime in terms ofmaximum cycles for thermal loadings with different magnitude. To this end, the plastic deformation isestimated from the macroscopic calculation with an energy equivalence between the thermoelasticcalculation and the non linear one. The predictions are found in agreement with experimental datacarried out on test-heat exchangers, for both the thermoelastic response and the number at cycles atrupture.

In the design of a railway bridge that is meant for train speeds larger than 200 km/h, the Swedish Traffic Administration requires a dynamic analysis in addition to the conventional static design. The models used for static design may not always be suitable for dynamic analysis, which could lead to inaccurate estimations of the dynamic response. The reason for this is a limited knowledge of the actual structural dynamic behaviour of bridges, which is why a hydraulic bridge exciter has been developed. With this device, smaller bridges can be excited in a load- or displacement-controlled manner under variable frequency and load. By having known inputs, the bridges’ dynamic properties can be evaluated using experimental modal analysis. A finite element model of the double tracked railway bridge Pershagen was created in order to plan a pilot test of the bridge exciter. The influence of the load amplitude and sweep rate was evaluated. A theoretically optimal excitation position was also investigated in order to excite as many eigenmodes as possible from one position during the pilot test. Based on these results, a pilot test was performed on the Pershagen Bridge. The dynamic properties of the bridge were evaluated based on the results from the test. From the pilot test it could be concluded that the load amplitude had a direct influence on the dynamic properties of the bridge, hence the dynamic behaviour is non-linear. The 1st vertical bending mode and its dynamic properties could also be identified. / Då en järnvägsbro som är avsedd för tåghastigheter över 200 km/h ska dimensioneras ställs det krav av Trafikverket att en dynamisk analys av bron skall utföras, utöver konventionell statisk dimensionering. De bromodeller som används för statisk analys är dock inte alltid lämpliga för dynamisk analys, vilket kan leda till felaktiga skattningar gällande den dynamiska inverkan. Anledningen till detta är att kunskapen om broars dynamiska egenskaper är begränsade, och av denna anledning har en lastexciterare utvecklats. Med hjälp av denna anordning kan mindre broar exciteras med kontrollerad last eller förskjutning under variabel frekvens och last. Då dessa input-parametrar är kända kan broars dynamiska egenskaper utvärderas genom experimentell modal analys. En finit element-modell av den tvåspåriga järnvägsbron vid Pershagen har skapats för att kunna planera ett pilottest av lastexciteraren. Svephastigheten och lastamplituden har analyserats. En teoretiskt optimal exciteringsposition har utvärderats för att excitera största möjliga antal moder från en och samma position under pilottestet. Utifrån dessa resultat utfördes ett pilottest på bron vid Pershagen, där brons dynamiska egenskaper utvärderades utifrån resultaten. Från pilottestet kunde en slutsats dras om att lastamplituden hade en direkt inverkan på de dynamiska egenskaperna, vilket betyder att det dynamiska beteendet är olinjärt. Den första vertikala böjmoden och dess dynamiska egenskaper kunde också fastställas.

Kapazitive Sensoren, insbesondere kapazitive Näherungsschalter, werden aufgrund ihrer Fähigkeit nahezu beliebige Materialien detektieren zu können bereits seit vielen Jahrzehnten in unterschiedlichsten Applikationen der industriellen Messtechnik eingesetzt. Aufgrund ihrer kompakten Bauform, ihrer hohen Robustheit und ihres vergleichsweise günstigen Preises werden diese Sensoren auch heute noch in vielen Anwendungen eingesetzt. Wegen ihrer hohen Empfindlichkeit auf jegliche Änderung der elektrischen Eigenschaften in der Umgebung der Messelektrode werden kapazitive Näherungsschalter bei der berührungslosen Erkennung von Grenzständen eingesetzt, wobei der Sensor an der Außenseite eines nicht-leitenden Behälters angebracht ist. In den letzten Jahren sind die Anforderungen an die Sensorik immer weiter gestiegen. Statt einfacher Näherungsschalter, die ein binäres Schaltsignal ausgeben, werden heute zunehmend Sensoren gefordert, die ähnlich kompakt sind und die Sensorkapazität als Prozesswert ausgeben. Dadurch können potenziell neue Anwendungsfelder erschlossen werden. Insbesondere bei der Erkennung hoch-leitfähiger Medien sind Anhaftungen, die sich im Bereich der Messelektrode auf der Behälterinnenseite absetzen, problematisch. Die von den Sensoren gemessene Kapazität ist für das Vorhandensein einer leitfähigen Anhaftung und den tatsächlichen Vollzustand nahezu identisch, was zu Fehlauslösungen des Sensors führen kann. Es existieren bereits Ansätze leitfähige Anhaftungen auszublenden, wie beispielsweise die Verwendung kurzer Impulse als Anregungssignal. Allerdings sind die bei diesen Verfahren auftretenden großen Messfrequenzen ungünstig für das Sensorverhalten bezüglich der elektromagnetischen Verträglichkeit. Weiterhin können alternative Messprinzipien, wie beispielsweise Wirbelstromverfahren, verwendet werden. Bei diesen Verfahren ist jedoch die minimale Leitfähigkeit des Mediums, das detektiert werden kann, begrenzt. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist die Entwicklung eines Verfahrens zur Anhaftungserkennung bei kapazitiven Näherungsschaltern, das zusätzlich Informationen über das zu detektierende Medium liefert. Mit Hilfe der Impedanzspektroskopie gekoppelt mit analytischen und numerischen Modellierungsverfahren wird ein aus drei Parametern bestehendes vereinfachtes Modell entwickelt, das die zuverlässige Unterscheidung von Voll- Leer- und Anhaftungszustand ermöglicht. Einer dieser Parameter, der Gesamtwiderstand, erlaubt Rückschlüsse auf die Leitfähigkeit des zu detektierenden Mediums. Dieses neue Verfahren hat das Potenzial auch in komplexeren Applikationen Anwendung zu finden. / Capacitive sensors, especially capacitive proximity switches, are used in many applications because of their ability to detect almost any material. These sensors are still commonly used today due to their compact design, their high robustness and their comparatively low price. Because of their high sensitivity to changes of the electrical properties of materials in vicinity of the measurement electrode, capacitive proximity switches can be used for contactless limit level sensing. The sensor is often mounted on the outside of the liquid container. In recent years, requirements in regard to sensor performance have increased. Instead of just outputting a binary signal, capacitive proximity switches are expected to also output their measured capacitance, which could potentially open new fields of application. When detecting highly conductive fluids, soiling on the inside of the container in vicinity of the measurement electrode is problematic. The measured capacitance of a conductive film and the actual limit level are almost identical, which can cause false positive detection of a limit level. There are already various approaches to compensate for conductive soiling in vicinity of the measurement electrode, one of which includes the usage of short impulses for excitation. However, the high frequencies involved in these methods can cause problems with respect to electromagnetic compatibility. In addition, alternative measurement principles, like the eddy current principle, can be used. However, this principle imposes constraints on the minimum conductivity of the material to be detected. In this work, a technique to distinguish between conductive soiling and the actual fill level, which also allows to extract information about the material to be detected, is developed. Using impedance spectroscopy combined with analytical and numerical modelling, a model consisting of three parameters is developed. The model allows to reliably distinguish between actual limit level and conductive soiling. The overall resistance supplied by the model can be used as a measure for the conductivity of the material to be detected. The technique has the potential to be used in demanding applications.