A doença renal crônica (DRC) é a afecção renal mais frequente em cães e caracteriza-se pela progressiva redução do número de néfrons funcionais. Com a evolução da doença, os cães podem apresentar um conjunto de manifestações clínicas denominada uremia. O suporte nutricional objetiva atenuar os efeitos do estado urêmico, retardar a progressão da doença e melhorar a qualidade de vida dos animais. O presente estudo objetivou avaliar os efeitos da dieta coadjuvante e manejo dietético no metabolismo de cálcio e fósforo [fósforo, cálcio total (CaT), cálcio iônico (Cai), paratormônio (PTH) e FGF-23 séricos], escore de condição corporal (ECC), escore de massa muscular (EMM), concentrações séricas de aminoácidos (AAs) e citocinas inflamatórias (CIT), bem como a capacidade antioxidante total (CAT) de cães com DRC alimentados com dieta coadjuvante. Foram selecionados 10 cães com DRC estádios 3 e 4 (IRIS, 2015) provenientes do atendimento do Hospital Veterinário da Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia da Universidade de São Paulo. As variáveis PTH, FGF-23, AAs, CIT e CAT foram avaliadas no início do estudo (T0) e após 6 meses de manejo dietético (T6). As determinações séricas de ureia, creatinina, CaT, Cai e fósforo; ECC e EMM foram determinadas em T0 e a cada 30 dias, durante os 6 meses de estudo. Para a análise dos resultados, testes estatísticos paramétricos e não paramétricos foram empregados e valores de p&lt;0,05 foram considerados significativos. As concentrações séricas de ureia, fósforo, CaT, Cai, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-&#945;, CAT, PTH e FGF-23 não apresentaram diferença entre os momentos T0 e T6. A creatinina elevou-se em T6 (p=0,0022). Os AAs fenilalanina, triptofano e ornitina decresceram no tempo T6 (p=0,0273; p=0,0253; p=0,0443, respectivamente) e a hidroxiprolina aumentou em T6 (p=0,0073). As concentrações séricas de PTH apresentaram correlação com a creatinina e ureia (r=0,45, p&lt;0,05; r=0,67, p&lt;0,01; respectivamente). O Cai apresentou correlação negativa com a ureia (r=-0,59, p&lt;0,01) e o fósforo sérico apresentou correlação positiva com o FGF-23 (r=0,51; p&lt;0,05). A ureia e creatinina apresentaram correlação positiva (r=0,62; p&lt;0,01). De acordo com os resultados encontrados, conclui-se que a dieta e o manejo nutricional empregados foram eficazes no controle do hiperparatireoidismo secundário renal, estresse oxidativo, marcadores inflamatórios e na manutenção do escore de condição corporal, massa muscular e nutrição proteica dos cães avaliados. / Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is the most common kidney disease in dogs and characterized by progressive reduction in the number of functional nephrons. With the evolution of the disease the dogs may present a set of clinical manifestations denominated uremia. The efforts of nutritional support are to mitigate the effects of uremic state, slow the progression of the disease and improve the quality of life of the animals. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of prescription diet and dietary management on the metabolism of calcium and phosphorus [phosphorus, total calcium (CaT), ionized calcium (Cai), parathyroid hormone (PTH) and FGF-23 in the serum], body condition score (BCS), muscle mass score (MME), serum concentrations of amino acids (AAs) and inflammatory cytokines (CYT), as well as the total antioxidant capacity (TAC) of dogs with CKD fed with a coadjuvant diet. Were selected 10 dogs with CKD stage 3 and 4 (IRIS, 2015), from the Veterinary Hospital at School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo. The PTH, FGF-23, AAs, CYT and TAC variables were evaluated at baseline (T0) and after 6 months of dietary management (T6). The serum determinations of urea, creatinine, CaT, Cai and phosphorus; BCS and MMS were determined at T0 and every 30 days, for 6 months. For the analysis of the results, parametric and non-parametric statistical tests were used and values of p<0.05 were considered significant. Serum concentrations of urea, phosphorus, CaT, Cai, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-&#945;, CAT, PTH, FGF-23 did not differ between T0 and T6. Serum creatinine increased in T6 (p=0.0022). The AAs phenylalanine, tryptophan and ornithine decreased in T6 (p=0.0273; p=0.0253; p=0.0443, respectively) and hydroxyproline increased in T6 (p=0.0073). Serum PTH concentrations correlate positively with the concentrations of creatinine and urea (r=0.45, p&lt;0.05; r=0.67, p&lt;0.01; respectively). The Cai was negatively correlated with urea (r = -0.59, p&lt;0.01) and serum phosphorus was positively correlated with FGF-23 (r = 0.51; p&lt;0.05). The urea and creatinine were positively correlated (r=0.62; p&lt;0.01). It was concluded that diet and nutritional management were effective in the control of renal secondary hyperparathyroidism, oxidative stress, inflammatory markers and maintenance of body condition score, muscle mass and protein nutrition in the evaluated dogs.

No description available.

Le développement du rein est un exemple intriguant d’un équilibre délicat entre la prolifération des cellules progénitrices, la différentiation et l’apoptose. Le gène Wt1 est indispensable pour la survie des cellules progénitrices. Le but de cette thèse a été de définir les voies de signalisation activées par Wt1 pendant le développement du rein. En utilisant les souris Wt1 KO, nous avons démontré que WT1 coordonne l’action de deux voies de signalisation opposées : Fgf et Bmp/Smad intervenant dans la survie des cellules progénitrices rénales. Dans une deuxième étude, nous avons analysé le rôle du modificateur épigénétique, le gène Phf19 pendant le développement du rein. Nous avons démontré que l’expression de ce gène est Wt1-dependant et il est exclusivement exprimé dans les cellules progénitrices rénales au cours du développement et que son inactivation dans le rein embryonnaire en culture, conduit à l’apoptose des cellules progénitrices. Nous avons généré des souris knockout de Phf19 par l’approche de CRISPR/Cas9. Dans le cas d’une létalité précoce des embryons homozygotes, nous opterons pour la production du model animal knockout conditionnel et procéderons à la caractérisation de leur profile épigénétique. Cette thèse a permis d’une part, de découvrir deux voies de signalisation antagonistes, régulées par le Wt1et impliquées dans le contrôle de la survie des cellules progénitrices rénales et d’autre part de nous orienter vers le contrôle de la survie et la prolifération de ces cellules par modifications épigénétiques. Ceci nous permettra de contribuer à la connaissance de l’étiologie d’une grande proportion des malformations rénales restant à ce jour inconnues. / Kidney organogenesis requires the tight control of proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis of renal progenitor cells. The Wilms’ tumour suppressor Wt1 is required for renal progenitor survival. The aim of this thesis was to elucidate the molecular cause for renal agenesis in Wt1 mutant mouse. Here we demonstrate that lack of Wt1 abolishes FGF and induces BMP/pSMAD signaling within the metanephric mesenchyme. We further show that recombinant BMP4, but not BMP7, induces an apoptotic response within the early kidney that can be suppressed by simultaneous addition of FGFs. These data reveal an unknown sensitivity of early renal progenitors to pSMAD signalling, establishes FGF and pSMAD signalling as antagonistic forces in early kidney development and places WT1 as a key regulator of pro-survival FGF signalling pathway genes. In a second study, we demonstrated, that Phf19, an epigenetic modifier, is essential both for maintaining Wt1 expression in renal progenitor cells and their survival in an ex-vivo culture. We further generated a Phf19 knockout mouse by CRISPR/Cas9. The homozygous embryos will be analyzed to further decipher the contribution of Phf19 to potential kidney malformations and the epigenetic profile of renal progenitor cells will be characterized. Overall, the new insights into the molecular mechanisms controlling the survival of renal progenitor cells, reported in this thesis, provide one more step in our understanding of renal malformations. In addition, our results conducted us toward the epigenetique modifications that could open up promising new avenue of understanding the etiology of an important proportion of renal malformation that remains unknown.

A doença renal crônica (DRC) é a afecção renal mais frequente em cães e caracteriza-se pela progressiva redução do número de néfrons funcionais. Com a evolução da doença, os cães podem apresentar um conjunto de manifestações clínicas denominada uremia. O suporte nutricional objetiva atenuar os efeitos do estado urêmico, retardar a progressão da doença e melhorar a qualidade de vida dos animais. O presente estudo objetivou avaliar os efeitos da dieta coadjuvante e manejo dietético no metabolismo de cálcio e fósforo [fósforo, cálcio total (CaT), cálcio iônico (Cai), paratormônio (PTH) e FGF-23 séricos], escore de condição corporal (ECC), escore de massa muscular (EMM), concentrações séricas de aminoácidos (AAs) e citocinas inflamatórias (CIT), bem como a capacidade antioxidante total (CAT) de cães com DRC alimentados com dieta coadjuvante. Foram selecionados 10 cães com DRC estádios 3 e 4 (IRIS, 2015) provenientes do atendimento do Hospital Veterinário da Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia da Universidade de São Paulo. As variáveis PTH, FGF-23, AAs, CIT e CAT foram avaliadas no início do estudo (T0) e após 6 meses de manejo dietético (T6). As determinações séricas de ureia, creatinina, CaT, Cai e fósforo; ECC e EMM foram determinadas em T0 e a cada 30 dias, durante os 6 meses de estudo. Para a análise dos resultados, testes estatísticos paramétricos e não paramétricos foram empregados e valores de p&lt;0,05 foram considerados significativos. As concentrações séricas de ureia, fósforo, CaT, Cai, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-&#945;, CAT, PTH e FGF-23 não apresentaram diferença entre os momentos T0 e T6. A creatinina elevou-se em T6 (p=0,0022). Os AAs fenilalanina, triptofano e ornitina decresceram no tempo T6 (p=0,0273; p=0,0253; p=0,0443, respectivamente) e a hidroxiprolina aumentou em T6 (p=0,0073). As concentrações séricas de PTH apresentaram correlação com a creatinina e ureia (r=0,45, p&lt;0,05; r=0,67, p&lt;0,01; respectivamente). O Cai apresentou correlação negativa com a ureia (r=-0,59, p&lt;0,01) e o fósforo sérico apresentou correlação positiva com o FGF-23 (r=0,51; p&lt;0,05). A ureia e creatinina apresentaram correlação positiva (r=0,62; p&lt;0,01). De acordo com os resultados encontrados, conclui-se que a dieta e o manejo nutricional empregados foram eficazes no controle do hiperparatireoidismo secundário renal, estresse oxidativo, marcadores inflamatórios e na manutenção do escore de condição corporal, massa muscular e nutrição proteica dos cães avaliados. / Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is the most common kidney disease in dogs and characterized by progressive reduction in the number of functional nephrons. With the evolution of the disease the dogs may present a set of clinical manifestations denominated uremia. The efforts of nutritional support are to mitigate the effects of uremic state, slow the progression of the disease and improve the quality of life of the animals. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of prescription diet and dietary management on the metabolism of calcium and phosphorus [phosphorus, total calcium (CaT), ionized calcium (Cai), parathyroid hormone (PTH) and FGF-23 in the serum], body condition score (BCS), muscle mass score (MME), serum concentrations of amino acids (AAs) and inflammatory cytokines (CYT), as well as the total antioxidant capacity (TAC) of dogs with CKD fed with a coadjuvant diet. Were selected 10 dogs with CKD stage 3 and 4 (IRIS, 2015), from the Veterinary Hospital at School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo. The PTH, FGF-23, AAs, CYT and TAC variables were evaluated at baseline (T0) and after 6 months of dietary management (T6). The serum determinations of urea, creatinine, CaT, Cai and phosphorus; BCS and MMS were determined at T0 and every 30 days, for 6 months. For the analysis of the results, parametric and non-parametric statistical tests were used and values of p<0.05 were considered significant. Serum concentrations of urea, phosphorus, CaT, Cai, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-&#945;, CAT, PTH, FGF-23 did not differ between T0 and T6. Serum creatinine increased in T6 (p=0.0022). The AAs phenylalanine, tryptophan and ornithine decreased in T6 (p=0.0273; p=0.0253; p=0.0443, respectively) and hydroxyproline increased in T6 (p=0.0073). Serum PTH concentrations correlate positively with the concentrations of creatinine and urea (r=0.45, p&lt;0.05; r=0.67, p&lt;0.01; respectively). The Cai was negatively correlated with urea (r = -0.59, p&lt;0.01) and serum phosphorus was positively correlated with FGF-23 (r = 0.51; p&lt;0.05). The urea and creatinine were positively correlated (r=0.62; p&lt;0.01). It was concluded that diet and nutritional management were effective in the control of renal secondary hyperparathyroidism, oxidative stress, inflammatory markers and maintenance of body condition score, muscle mass and protein nutrition in the evaluated dogs.

In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde der Einfluss des Fibroblast Growth Factor 9 (FGF-9) auf die Remyelinisierung in einem Modell der Multiplen Sklerose untersucht. Dafür wurde ein Mausmodell benutzt, bei dem es durch Fütterung von Cuprizon zu Oligodendrozytentod und Demyelinisierung kommt sowie nach Absetzen des Kupferchelators zu Remyelinisierung. FGF-9 wurde zum Zeitpunkt des Absetzens des toxischen Futters stereotaktisch in den Balken der Tiere injiziert. Der Fortschritt der Remyelinisierung wurde an zwei Zeitpunkten analysiert, weshalb eine Hälfte der Tiere nach 3 Tagen und die andere Hälfte nach 6 Tagen perfundiert und histologisch untersucht wurde. Die Beeinflussung von Remyelinisierung durch FGF-9 wurde auf 3 Ebenen beurteilt. (1) Die lichtmikroskopische Analyse der Remyelinisierung zeigte keinen Einfluss einer Behandlung mit FGF-9. (2) Auch in der elektronenmikroskopischen Untersuchung zeigte sich keine Beeinflussung der Anzahl remyelinisierter Fasern durch eine FGF-9- Behandlung. (3) Durch die Antikörper-vermittelte Anfärbung und Quantifizierung verschiedener Oligodendroglia-Populationen konnten folgende Beobachtungen gemacht werden: Während fortlaufender Remyelinisierung kam es zu einer Vermehrung von Oligodendrozyten-Vorläuferzellen. Dies zeigte sich an einer signifikant höheren Zahl von NG-2-markierten Zellen in Tieren, die 6 Tage nach Absetzen von Cuprizon untersucht wurden. Außerdem konnte ein Einfluss von FGF-9 auf die Population myelinbildender Zellen nachgewiesen werden. Die Dichte von Zellen, die das Myelinprotein PLP exprimierten, war bei FGF-9-behandelten Präparaten signifikant niedriger. Die Dichte reifer, Nogo-A-exprimierender Zellen war in der FGF-9- behandelten Versuchsgruppe an Tag 6, jedoch nicht an Tag 3 erniedrigt. Dass FGF-9 einen Einfluss auf Oligodendroglia in vitro hat, ist vorbeschrieben. Dabei gibt es jedoch keine übereinstimmende Aussage, ob der Wachstumsfakor proliferationshemmend oder -fördernd auf die Oligodendrogliagenese wirkt. Zudem fehlt der Nachweis, ob dies auch die Remyelinisierung beeinflusst. In dem hier durchgeführten in-vivo-Experiment konnte dieser Schritt ebenfalls nicht nachgewiesen werden. Die Zellzählungen lassen jedoch vermuten, dass FGF-9 einen hemmenden Einfluss auf die Entwicklung von Oligodendrozyten zu myelinbildenen Oligodendrozyten hat. Somit ist FGF-9 ein möglicher Induktor eines Differenzierungsblockes. In der Literatur wird eine solche Hemmung der Ausreifung von Oligodendrozyten als Ursache für die bei MS-Patienten unvollständig ablaufende Remyelinisierung postuliert. Unzureichende Remyelinisierung gilt als Korrelat der nicht vollständigen Kompensation von Behinderungen, die im Verlauf der autoimmunen Entzündungsschübe bei Multipler Sklerose entstehen.

An early event in animal development is the formation of the three primary germ layers that define the body plan. During gastrulation, cells migrate through the primitive streak of the embryo and undergo changes in morphology and gene expression, thus creating the mesodermal and endodermal cell layers. Gastrulation requires expression of Fibroblast Growth Factor (FGF), Wnt, and Platelet-Derived Growth Factor (PDGF). Embryos treated with FGF inhibitors fail to gastrulate, as cell migration is completely halted. During gastrulation, 44 microRNAs are expressed in the primitive streak of G. gallus embryos, and six (microRNAs -let7b, -9, -19b, -107, -130b, and -218) are strongly upregulated when FGF signaling is blocked. The abundance of these six FGF-regulated microRNAs is controlled at various stages of processing: most are regulated transcriptionally, and three of them (let7b, 9, and 130b) are blocked by the presence of Lin28B, an RNA-binding protein upregulated by FGF signaling. These microRNAs target various serine/threonine and tyrosine kinase receptors. We propose a novel pathway by which FGF signaling downregulates several key microRNAs (partially through Lin28B), upregulating gene targets such as PDGFRA, which permits and directs cell migration during gastrulation. These findings add new layers of complexity to the role that FGF signaling plays during embryogenesis. FGF signaling is also required for the formation of the heartfields, and has an overlapping pattern of expression with BMP (Bone Morphogenetic Protein). A microarray experiment using inhibitors of FGF and BMP found that thousands of genes in pre-cardiac mesoderm are affected by FGF signaling, BMP signaling, or a cooperative effect of the two. The promoter regions of similarly regulated genes were queried for over-represented transcription factor binding sites or novel DNA motifs. Cluster analysis of over-represented sites determined candidate transcriptional modules that were tested in primary cardiac myocyte and fibroblast cultures. About 75% of predicted modules in FGF-upregulated genes proved to be functional enhancers or repressors. Functional enhancers among FGF-upregulated genes contained clusters of CdxA and NFY sites, and increased transcription in the presence of a constitutively active FGF receptor.

Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signalling plays many fundamentally important roles during the development of the mammalian embryo. However, its effects on pluripotent stem cells derived from mouse and human embryos appear to be markedly different. FGF2 is routinely added to culture medium for propagating undifferentiated human (hES) cells, whereas in mouse (mES) cell cultures FGFs have been described as regulators of their differentiated progeny. To assess the effect of FGF signalling on undifferentiated mES cells, the effects of FGF2 and 4 were analysed in the presence of saturating and sub-saturating levels of the inhibitor of differentiation, leukaemia inhibitory factor (LIF). Mouse ES cell self-renewal was quantified by measuring the expression of the stem cell specific reporter Oct4-LacZ in biochemical and fluorometric assays. Treatment with FGF reduced the expression of the OCT4-LacZ reporter, even under saturating concentrations of LIF and this was mirrored by decreased levels of OCT4 protein. Furthermore, treatment with FGF leads to upregulation of the ectodermal differentiation marker Pax6. These results suggest that FGF signalling has a direct impact on undifferentiated mES cells, and actively promotes their differentiation. To asses the effect of FGF signalling on hES cells without the influence of undefined factors, a feeder and serum free system was developed. Cells growing in this conditions for >20 passages maintained expression of surface (SSEA3 and TRA1-60 and 81) and internal (OCT4) markers specific for undifferentiated hES cells. Expression of these markers was dependant on the continuous presence of FGF2. Indeed, withdrawal of FGF2 resulted in a rapid decrease of in hES cell growth and of the emergence of cell flattened morphology and of the surface marker SSEA1, changes typically associated with differentiation. Two important signals activated by FGF in hES cells are the ERK/MAPK and PI3K pathways. To assess their functional relevance, hES cell cultures were treated with the drugs UO126 and LY294002, inhibitors of the MAPK and PI3K pathways respectively. Drug mediated suppression of the phosphorylation of these pathways, correlated with a reduction in cell growth, flattening of the colonies and reduction in SSEA4 expression. Use of SB431542, specific inhibitor of TGFβ/activin type I receptor kinase (Alk5) also resulted in the flattening of the colonies and the appearance of dispersed cells. Therefore, inhibition of MAPK and PI3K appears to impair growth and self-renewal in hES cells and this may be happening in conjunction with TGFβ/Activin pathway. Taken together, these results suggest that FGF signalling has opposite effects in mouse and human ES cells: inducing differentiation in mES and sustaining self-renewal in hES.

Mon travail de thèse a été principalement de comprendre comment les voies de signalisations contrôlent la différenciation et la morphogenèse de l'embryon de vertébré. Les communications entre cellules sont à la base du développement des métazoaires et de leurs évolutions et sont souvent impliquées dans les pathologies humaines. J'ai profité de la puissance des approches fonctionnelles chez le xenope pour essayer de comprendre comment les signaux BMP, FGF, Nodal et Notch sont intégrés dans le temps et l'espace afin de coordonnées différentes décisions cellulaires. Premièrement, nous avons montré que la voie Nodal est active avant la transition mid-blastuléene et permet l'induction du mesedoderme à travers l'auto régulation de l'expression de ces ligands Xnr5 et Xnr6 (Skirkanish et al. soumis à Development). Deuxièmement, j'ai montré que différent ligand de la voie Nodal contrôlent séquentiellement l'induction du mesendoderm et les mouvements de gastrulation (Luxardi et al., Development, 2010). Troisièmement, j'ai montré qu'un cinquième ligand de la voie Nodal, Xnr4, contrôle la régionalisation médio latérale de la plaque neurale ouverte et la neurogenèse. Quatrièmement, nous avons montré qu'une famille de microARN, nir449, contrôle la différenciation des cellules multi-ciliées à travers son action sur un ligand de la voie Notch, Delta-1 (Marcet et al. Nature Cell Biology, en révision). Enfin, j'ai découvert une nouvelle fonction des signaux BMP dans le control de la spécification des épithéliums muco cilié. / My PhD work generally addressed how signaling pathways control differentiation and morphogenesis in the vertebrate embryo. intercellular communication is the basis of metazoan development and evolution and is often involved in human pathologies. I take advantage of the power of functional approaches in the Xenopus embryo, to try and understand how BMP, FGF, Nodal and Notch signals are intragrated in time ans space to coordinate vatious cellular decisions. First, we showed that Nodal signaling is activated before the mid blastula transition and allow mesendoderm induction through the auro regulation of the expression of its ligands Xnr5 and Xnr6 (Skirkanish et al., submitted to development). Second, I have demonstrated that in a gastrulation movements (Luxardi et al., Development, 2010). Third, I have demonstrated that a fifth Nodal ligand, Xnr4, control medio-lateral patterning of the open neural plate and neurogenesis. Froth, we showed that a microRNA family, mir449, controls differenciation of multiciliated cells through the regulation of the Notch ligand Delta-1 (Marcet et al. Nature Cell Biology, in revision). Last, I have discovered a novel function of the BMP pathway in the control of cell type specification within the epidermal mucocialiary epithelium

L’induction neurale est le processus au travers duquel les cellules ectodermiques de l’embryon deviennent neurales. De nombreuses études sur les mécanismes contrôlant ce processus on été réalisées mais du fait de sa complexité, de nombreuses questions restent sans réponse. Au cours de ce travail de thèse, je me suis intéressé à l’étude de l’induction neurale sous une perspective évolutive en étudiant ce processus chez le céphalocordé amphioxus, l’un des plus proches parents des vertébrés. J’ai pu mettre en évidence que, comme les vertébrés, l’amphioxus possède un organisateur. J’ai également confirmé une conservation du rôle des voies de signalisation BMP et FGF respectivement dans l’induction de l’épiderme et la régionalisation du tissu neural. Cependant, au contraire des vertébrés, le signal FGF ne semble pas être un acteur prépondérant de l’induction neurale. Au contraire, un rôle important de la voie de signalisation Activine/Nodal a été mis en évidence.Les résultats obtenus soutiennent d’une part la conservation de certains aspects de ce mécanisme chez tous les chordés, et suggèrent d’autre part l’implication de certains acteurs comme la voie Activine/Nodal jusque là inconnue chez les vertébrés. La position phylogénétique de l’amphioxus et la conservation globale de ce processus entre les céphalochordés et les vertébrés nous permettent de suggérer que l’ancêtre des chordés formait du tissue neurale au travers des mécanismes mis en évidence dans cet étude. Ces résultats nous permettent également de proposer de nouvelles études chez les vertébrés visant à établir un rôle putatif de la voie Activine/Nodal au cours de ce processus, rôle jusque la complètement inconnu. / Neural induction is the process through which embryonic ectodermal cells become neural. Many studies on the mechanisms controlling this process have been made, but because of its complexity, many questions remain unanswered. In this thesis, I have focused my interest on the study of neural induction in an evolutionary context studying this process in the cephalochordate amphioxus, one of the closest relatives of vertebrates. I have highlighted that amphioxus, as vertebrates, possesses an organizer. I have demonstrated a conservation of the role of BMP and FGF signals in the induction of the epidermis and the regionalization of neural tissue respectively. However, in contrast to vertebrates, FGF signal does not appear to be a major player in neural induction. Instead, an important role of Activin/Nodal signaling pathway has been demonstrated. These results support, first, the conservation of several aspects of this mechanism in all chordates, and second, they suggest the involvement of the Activin/Nodal signaling in this process, something previously unknown in vertebrates. The phylogenetic position of amphioxus and the overall conservation of this process between cephalochordates and vertebrates allow us to suggest that the ancestor of chordates formed its neural tissue through mechanisms highlighted in this study. These results also allow us to propose new studies in vertebrates for establishing a putative role of the Activin/Nodal signaling during this process, a role previously completely unknown.

Heparan sulphate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are cell surface/secreted molecules expressed by all cells. HSPGs consist of carbohydrate side-chains attached to a core protein and are involved in regulating key signalling pathways in the developing mammalian brain via sugar-protein interactions. It has been hypothesized, in the ‘heparan sulphate (HS) code hypothesis’, that the specificity for the interaction between the HSPGs and particular signalling pathways is encoded by its HS side-chain. HS has an enormous variety of structures due to postsynthetic modification. Hs2st and Hs6st1 are enzymes involved in generating different HS structures by sulphating the 2-carbon or 6-carbon molecule of the sugar backbone respectively. Fibroblast growth factors (Fgfs) are a family of signalling molecules crucial for forebrain development. Some of its members such as Fgf8 are morphogens which pattern the forebrain via regulated gradient formation while others such as Fgf2 drive neurogenesis and cell proliferation. One of the main molecular consequences of Fgf signalling is activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Erk) where the activation of Erk then drives developmental events such as neurogenesis or cell migration. Based on previous studies on the HS code hypothesis, we hypothesized that differential sulphation regulates Fgf signalling in a specific manner depending on the HS sulphation pattern. We performed binding assays on Hs2st-/- mice to ascertain the molecular mechanism behind the role of differential sulphation in Erk signalling through Fgf2 in the forebrain. We found that differential sulphation also has an important role to play in regionally targeting Fgf2/Erk signalling through regulating the formation of active signalling complexes. Studying the Fgf8/Erk signalling axis at E14.5 developing mouse corticoseptal boundary (CSB) revealed increased Fgf8 levels and Erk hyperactivation in both Hs2st and Hs6st1 null mutants. The dysregulation of Fgf8/Erk signalling at the CSB also highly correlates with the high expression of Hs2st and Hs6st1 at the CSB. A closer look into the molecular phenotypes of Hs2st-/- and Hs6st1-/- CSB revealed differences between them in which Hs6st1-/- CSB has higher Fgf8 levels compared to Hs2st-/- CSB. To elucidate the mechanisms underlying Hs2st and Hs6st1 role at the CSB, we investigated the formation and interpretation of Fgf8/Erk signalling gradient using Fgf8 bead assays in mice with Hs2st and Hs6st1 loss of function throughout development. We found that differential sulphation has a complex effect on Fgf8 gradient formation and interpretation in the forebrain in which Hs2st acts to stabilise the Fgf8 distribution through regulating Fgf8 levels through time while Hs6st1 acts to stabilise the Fgf8 distribution by maintaining the shape of the Fgf8 gradient through restricting Fgf8 levels during the formation of the Fgf8 distribution. In addition, we found Hs2st and Hs6st1 both function to increase the sensitivity of the CSB to Fgf8 for an Erk response although through different modes of action. Therefore, we conclude that differential HS sulphation plays a specific role in Fgf/Erk signalling depending on the HS sulphation pattern.