[ES] El Sistema agroalimentario es uno de los principales causantes del complejo entramado de problemáticas que conforman la actual crisis ecosocial, desde el cambio climático a la pérdida de biodiversidad, pasando por la disrupción de los ciclos biogeoquímicos, los cambios de uso del suelo, la contaminación o la sobre-explotación de los recursos hídricos. En el origen de estos graves desequilibrios ambientales subyacen unos estilos de vida alta y crecientemente demandantes de materiales y energía, completamente ajenos a los límites finitos del planeta en que habitamos. Hasta ahora, en el ámbito de la alimentación, el desarrollo de estrategias para minimizar la contrapartida ambiental al consumismo de una parte del mundo se ha centrado mayoritariamente en soluciones tecnológicas (por ejemplo, la reducción de la intensidad de las emisiones de la producción mediante diferentes manejos agronómicos). Sin embargo, son escasas las probabilidades de que este tipo de medidas sea suficiente para cubrir las necesidades mínimas de la población global sin poner en riesgo el equilibrio de los ecosistemas y la vida en el planeta Tierra. La adopción de hábitos alimentarios sostenibles es una medida potencialmente al alcance de todas las personas, no solamente asociada a la reducción de la presión ambiental, sino también a una mejor salud humana. No obstante, pese a la creciente toma de conciencia social sobre las implicaciones de la alimentación sobre la salud humana y planetaria, las intenciones personales de mejorar los hábitos alimentarios se ven frustradas por la existencia de múltiples barreras de muy diversa índole. Por ello, y dada la urgencia de la situación en que nos encontramos, resulta necesaria la implementación de intervenciones que impulsen cambios a gran escala. Esta Tesis Doctoral pretende contribuir a mejorar el conocimiento sobre cómo los hábitos alimentarios sostenibles - focalizando en dietas ricas en productos vegetales y productos ecológicos, locales y de temporada - pueden ser impulsados y facilitados. Para ello, se emplea un enfoque transdisciplinar, explorando tres estrategias diferentes. En un primer lugar se analiza el potencial mitigador del cambio climático de los huertos urbanos, mediante su función de catalización de hábitos alimentarios sostenibles y la reducción de la huella de carbono de las personas que interactúan en este tipo de espacios. En segundo lugar, se realiza una segmentación de audiencias respecto a varios criterios de sostenibilidad ambiental y determinantes psico-sociales del consumo alimentario correspondientes a varios niveles cognitivos. Por último, se describe el proceso de diseño de una aplicación móvil para facilitar la adopción de hábitos alimentarios sostenibles y saludables, en la que se han integrado conocimientos de las ciencias sociales y naturales. La Tesis se presenta en formato de compendio de artículos. El primero de los capítulos corresponde a un artículo publicado en una revista de alto impacto (D1). Por otro lado, esta Tesis se ha desarrollado en el marco del programa de Doctorados Industriales de la Agencia Española de Investigación, con referencia DIN2018-009975. El desarrollo experimental ha sido realizado en la empresa ICATALIST, S.L., y corresponde al diseño de la aplicación móvil descrita en el capítulo 4. / [CA] El Sistema agroalimentari és un dels principals causants del complex entramat de problemàtiques que conformen l'actual crisi ecosocial, des del canvi climàtic a la pèrdua de biodiversitat, passant per la disrupció dels cicles biogeoquímics, els canvis d'ús del sòl, la contaminació o la sobre-explotació dels recursos hídrics. En l'origen d'estos greus desequilibris ambientals subjauen uns estils de vida alta i creixentment demandants de materials i energia, completament aliens als límits finits del planeta en què habitem. Fins ara, en l'àmbit de l'alimentació, el desenvolupament d'estratègies per a minimitzar la contrapartida ambiental al consumisme d'una part del món s'ha centrat majoritàriament en solucions tecnològiques (per exemple, la reducció de la intensitat de les emissions de la producció mitjançant diferents manejos agronòmics). No obstant això, són escasses les probabilitats que este tipus de mesures siga suficient per a cobrir les necessitats mínimes de la població global sense posar en risc l'equilibri dels ecosistemes i la vida en el planeta Terra. L'adopció d'hàbits alimentaris sostenibles és una mesura potencialment a l'abast de totes les persones, no solament associada a la reducció de la pressió ambiental, sinó també a una millor salut humana. No obstant això, malgrat la creixent presa de consciència social sobre les implicacions de l'alimentació sobre la salut humana i planetària, les intencions personals de millorar els hàbits alimentaris es veuen frustrades per l'existència de múltiples barreres de molt diversa índole. Per això, i donada la urgència de la situació en què ens trobem, resulta necessària la implementació d'intervencions que impulsen canvis a gran escala. Esta Tesi Doctoral pretén contribuir a millorar el coneixement sobre com els hàbits alimentaris sostenibles - focalitzant en dietes riques en productes vegetals i productes ecològics, locals i de temporada - poden ser impulsats i facilitats. Per a això, s'empra un enfocament transdisciplinar, explorant tres estratègies diferents. En un primer lloc s'analitza el potencial mitigador del canvi climàtic dels horts urbans, mitjançant la seua funció de *catalización d'hàbits alimentaris sostenibles i la reducció de la petjada de carboni de les persones que interactuen en esta mena d'espais. En segon lloc, es realitza una segmentació d'audiències respecte a diversos criteris de sostenibilitat ambiental i determinants psicosocials del consum alimentari corresponents a diversos nivells cognitius. Finalment, es descriu el procés de disseny d'una aplicació mòbil per a facilitar l'adopció d'hàbits alimentaris sostenibles i saludables, en la qual s'han integrat coneixements de les ciències socials i naturals. La Tesi es presenta en format de compendi d'articles. El primer dels capítols correspon a un article publicat en una revista d'alt impacte (D1). D'altra banda, esta Tesi s'ha desenvolupat en el marc del programa de Doctorats Industrials de l'Agència Espanyola d'Investigació, amb referència DIN2018-009975. El desenvolupament experimental ha sigut realitzat en l'empresa *ICATALIST, S.L., i correspon al disseny de l'aplicació mòbil descrita en el capítol 4. / [EN] The agri-food system is one of the main causes of the complex and tangling problems that make up the current eco-social crisis, from climate change to biodiversity decline, including the disruption of biogeochemical cycles, changes in land use, pollution or the over-exploitation of water resources. At the origin of these serious environmental disturbances lie the expansion of lifestyles that are highly and increasingly demanding of materials and energy, completely unconnected to the finite limits of the planet we inhabit. Until now, in the food domain, the development of strategies to minimize the environmental repercussions of consumerism in one part of the world has mainly focused on technological solutions (for example, the intensity reduction of production emissions through different agronomic management techniques). However, the chances that these types of measures will be sufficient to cover the minimum needs of the global population without putting at risk ecosystems' balance and life on planet Earth are low. The adoption of sustainable eating habits is a measure potentially within the reach of all people, not only associated with the reduction of environmental pressure but also with better human health. However, despite the growing social awareness of the implications of diet on human and planetary health, personal intentions to improve eating habits can be frustrated by the existence of multiple barriers of very diverse kinds. For this reason, and given the urgency of mitigating current environmental problems, the implementation of interventions that promote large-scale changes is necessary. This Doctoral Thesis aims to increase existing knowledge about how the adoption of sustainable eating habits - focusing on plant-rich diets based on organic, local, and seasonal products - can be promoted and eased. To do this, a transdisciplinary approach is used, exploring three different methodologies. First, the climate change mitigating potential of urban gardens is analysed, through the catalysing of sustainable eating habits and reducing the carbon footprint of the people who interact in these types. Secondly, a segmentation of audiences is carried out with a multi-criteria sustainability scope and psychosocial determinants of food consumption corresponding to various cognitive levels. Finally, the design process of a mobile application to facilitate the adoption of sustainable and healthy eating habits is described, in which knowledge from social and natural sciences has been integrated. The Thesis is presented in the format of a compendium of articles. The first chapter corresponds to an article published in a high-impact journal (D1). On the other hand, this Thesis has been developed within the framework of the Industrial Doctorate program of the Spanish Research Agency, with reference DIN2018-009975. The experimental development has been carried out in the company ICATALIST, S.L., and corresponds to the design of the mobile application described in Chapter 4. / This thesis has been developed within the framework of the Industrial Doctorate program of the Spanish Research Agency, with reference DIN2018-009975. / Puigdueta Bartolomé, I. (2024). Strategies for Climate Change Mitigation and Environmental Sustainability through Changes in Food Behaviour Increasing the Adoption of Plant-Rich Diets Based on Organic and Local Food Products [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/205587

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Objectif. Décrire les attitudes et habitudes de Canadiens relativement à la préparation des aliments à la maison et au repas familial, afin de saisir les motivations à exploiter lors de la promotion de ces habitudes. Méthodes. Un sondage électronique de 39 questions à choix multiples a été placé sur le site des Diététistes du Canada du 16 novembre au 22 décembre 2006. Les énoncés analysés abordent la perception des bénéfices associés à la cuisine maison, à la planification des soupers et au repas familial, les obstacles à cuisiner, le temps de préparation et la planification des soupers, l’apprentissage de la cuisine, les sources d’idées recettes et la consommation des repas familiaux. Résultats. Au total, 4080 individus ont complété le questionnaire. Bien qu’ils croient que la cuisine maison puisse améliorer la qualité de l’alimentation et les comportements alimentaires, les répondants rencontrent plusieurs obstacles à la préparation des aliments au quotidien, parmi lesquels le manque de temps, d’énergie, d’idées et de planification. Bien qu’une majorité de Canadiens soupent en famille, il existe des écarts selon les groupes d’âge et les régions canadiennes. Conclusion. Cette étude souligne la pertinence d’élaborer des stratégies de communication pour informer les consommateurs sur les bénéfices de la cuisine maison et du repas en famille, afin de les aider à surmonter les défis associés à ces habitudes. Si les nutritionnistes sont des intervenants de choix, des collaborations interdisciplinaires sont proposées pour promouvoir une cuisine maison saine, bien planifiée, simplifiée et savourée en famille. / Objective. To describe Canadians' attitudes and habits with regard to home food preparation for family meals in order to seize the motivations to be exploited during the promotion of these habits. Methods. An electronic poll of 39 multiple-choice questions was posted on the Dieticians of Canada's website from November 16th till December 22nd, 2006. The analyzed statements cover the perception of the benefits associated with home cooking, supper planning and family meals, the barriers to cooking, the preparation time and supper planning, the development of cooking skills, sources of recipes ideas and consumption of family meals. Results. A total of 4080 individuals completed the questionnaire. Although they believe that home cooking can improve the food quality and eating habits, the participants meet several barriers to food preparation in everyday life, among which the lack of time, energy, ideas and planning. Although a majority of Canadians have family suppers, there are gaps according to age groups and Canadian regions. Conclusion. This study highlights the relevance of elaborating communications strategies to inform consumers of the benefits of home cooking and family meals in order to help them to deal with the challenges associated with these habits. If nutritionists are the best interveners, interdisciplinary collaborations are proposed to promote a healthy, well planned home cooking enjoyed with the family.

INTRODUÇÃO: Não obstante os bons resultados e reprodutibilidade da derivação gástrica em Y de Roux (DGYR), discutem-se ainda aspectos técnicos que podem influenciar tanto o resultado na perda de peso, como a qualidade de vida pós-operatória (PO). Atribui-se hoje a efeitos restritivos, como volume da bolsa gástrica e sua velocidade de esvaziamento, assim como a fatores metabólicos, o resultado da cirurgia. As influências morfofuncionais não são totalmente compreendidas. OBJETIVO: Avaliar a influência do volume da bolsa gástrica e sua velocidade de esvaziamento sobre a perda de peso e a tolerância alimentar no PO de DGYR. MÉTODO: Pacientes em PO tardio de DGYR; foram avaliados a percentagem de perda de excesso de peso (%PEP), reganho de peso (%PEPreganho), tolerância alimentar por questionário de tolerância (ES), volume da bolsa (V) por tomografia computadorizada tridimensional (TC3D) e velocidade de esvaziamento da bolsa por cintilografia, avaliada por percentual de retenção (%Ret) em 1, 2 e 4 horas. Foram identificados pontos de corte para V e %Ret em 1 hora (%Ret1). A partir destes parâmetros a amostra foi categorizada por V e %Ret1, e os dados correlacionados com resultados em perda de peso e tolerância alimentar. RESULTADOS: Foram estudados 67 pacientes. A idade mediana foi 51 anos, 91,04% sexo feminino, e IMC mediano inicial de 51,44 kg/m2. O tempo de seguimento PO mediano foi de 47 meses. A amostra apresentou 60,27%PEPnadir como mediana da maior perda de peso PO e 16,13%PEPreganho. A mediana de V foi de 28mL; a %Ret em 1, 2, 4 horas foras foram 8%, 2%, 1%, respectivamente. A pontuação mediana do ES foi 21. Os pontos de corte considerados foram V=40mL, e %Ret1 de 12% e 25%. Foram comparados subgrupos por V (V <= 40mL, V > 40mL) e por %Ret1 (%Ret1 <= 12%, 12%<%Ret1 < 25%, e %Ret1>=25%). Na análise categorizada por V, houve associação entre V <= 40mL e maior velocidade de esvaziamento até 2 horas (V <= 40mL: %Ret1=6, %Ret2=2, p=0,009; V > 40mL: %Ret1=44, %Ret2=13,5, p=0,045). Na análise categorizada por %Ret1, observou-se associação entre maior velocidade de esvaziamento em 1 hora e melhor evolução ponderal tardia, representada por menor %PEPreganho (p=0,036), e maior %PEPatual (p=0,033) no grupo com %Ret1 <= 12%. Na avaliação do ES, associou-se melhor tolerância alimentar (ES > 24) e menor %Ret1 (p=0,003). CONCLUSÕES: Houve associação do volume da bolsa gástrica com a velocidade de esvaziamento. O esvaziamento mais rápido correlacionou-se com maior %PEP tardia, menor reganho de peso e melhor tolerância alimentar. Estes dados sugeriram que a presença de bolsa gástrica pequena, com menos de 40 mL, e com rápido esvaziamento, são parâmetros importantes para adequado resultado tardio na DGYR. O uso da TC3D e da cintilografia para avaliação morfofuncional da DGYR podem contribuir para investigação do reganho de peso e intolerância alimentar PO / INTRODUCTION: Despite the good results and good reproducibility of the Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (GBP), discussions about technical aspects still remain. Postoperative anatomy can influence the result in weight loss, as the postoperative (PO) quality-of-life. Surgical results are nowadays attributed to restriction, promoted by the small neo-stomach volume and its emptying, as well as metabolic factors. These anatomical and functional influences on surgical results are often poorly evaluated, and yet not fully understood. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the influence of the gastric pouch volume and its emptying rate on weight loss, and food tolerance, in the late PO of GBP. METHOD: Patients followed-up at HC-FMUSP in late PO of GBP; percentage of excess weight loss (%EWL), weight regained (%EWLregain), food tolerance with specific questionnaire (Suter Score, SS), gastric pouch volumetry (V) by three-dimensional computed tomography (CT3D), and pouch emptying rate by scintigraphy, evaluated by retention percentage (%Ret) in 1, 2, 4 hours, were assessed. Cutoffs were identified for %Ret at 1 hour (%Ret1) and V. From these parameters the sample was categorized by V and %Ret1, looking for associations between V and %Ret and results in weight loss and food tolerance. RESULTS: Eighty patients were enrolled and 67 completed the study. The median age was 51 years, 91.04% were female, with initial median BMI of 51.44 kg/m2. The PO median follow-up time was 47 months. The sample showed median of 60.27% as EWLnadir as PO better weight loss, with 16.13% of EWLregain. The median V was 28mL; %Ret at 1, 2, 4 hours were 8%, 2%, 1%, respectively. The median score of SS was 21. The cutoff points considered were V=40mL, and %Ret1=12% and 25%. Subgroups were compared by V (V <= 40mL, V > 40mL) and Ret1% (%Ret1 <= 12%, 12% < %Ret1 < 25%, and %Ret1 >= 25%). The categorized analysis by V found associations between V<=40mL and higher emptying speeds up to 2 hours (V <= 40mL: %Ret1=6, %Ret2=2, p=0.009; V > 40mL: %Ret1=44, %Ret2=13.5, p=0.045). In the categorized analysis by %Ret1, it was found association between higher emptying speed in 1 hour and higher late PO weight loss, represented by lower %EWLregain (p=0.036), and higher late %EWL (p=0.033) in the group with %Ret1<=12%, compared to the group %Ret1 >= 25%. Better food tolerance, assessed by Suter questionnaire (SS > 24), was associated with lower %Ret1 (p=0.003). CONCLUSIONS: There was an association between gastric pouch volume and emptying rate. Smaller gastric pouch have shown faster gastric emptying. The fastest gastric emptying was correlated with higher late %EWL, less weight regain and better PO food tolerance. These data suggest that the construction of small gastric pouch, with less than 40 mL, and with rapid emptying rate, are important parameters for good outcomes in late postoperative in GBP. The use of CT3D and scintigraphy for morphological and functional assessment of GBP can contribute in the evaluation of possible causes of late postoperative weight regain and food intolerance

Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death in most industrialised countries and in developing countries the trend in cardiovascular-related deaths is increasing. World-wide, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is an emerging cause of disability and premature death. Both these conditions are closely associated with the consumption of energy-dense foods and food products that are poor in nutrients, as well as with a sedentary lifestyle. Pharmacological and surgical interventions can improve the outcome and delay the progression of the disease, but in terms of population-level prevention there is no substitute for the adoption of a healthy lifestyle. SETTING The underlying studies were conducted in Västerbotten (the VIP study), and in Norrbotten and Västerbotten combined (the MONICA Project). Norrbotten andVästerbotten are the two northernmost counties in Sweden. Since the mid-1980sthe prevalence of cardiovascular disease has decreased and diabetes rates haveremained stable in this region, despite of an unbroken trend of increasing body weight. OBJECTIVE The aim of this thesis is to describe changes in reported dietary habits, estimatetheir relative importance as risk factors for diabetes and cardiovascular disease, and finally to identify lifestyle components as potential targets for intervention. RESULTS The first paper describes changes in self-reported food consumption between 1986 and 1999. During this period, the population in question switched from products with high saturated fatty acid content (e.g. milk containing 3% fat, butter) to foods containing less saturated fat (e.g. milk containing 1.5% fat, vegetable oil, low-fat margarine); pasta and rice were consumed more often, and potatoes were consumed less. Convenience foods (e.g. hamburgers, snacks, sweets) became more popular, whilst traditional dishes (e.g. potato dumplings, black pudding, blöta) decreased in popularity. Fruit and vegetable intake remained low. In paper two we study the effects of these changes in food intake on the risk of developing T2DM using body fat distribution as an early indicator. Increased consumption of convenience foods was associated with unfavourable changes (smaller hip circumference and larger waist circumference), whereas the increased consumption of vegetable oil and pasta was associated with low-risk fat distribution. In the third paper we report studies on the association between fat consumption and T2DM. We used the pattern of fatty acids in the membranes of red blood cells as a marker of fat intake. In addition to confirming earlier findings (markers of the intake of saturated fat are associated with increased risk of T2DM and markers of unsaturated fat are associated with reduced T2DM risk), we also identified associations between two markers of milk-derived saturated fat intake and enterolactone, a biomarker of dietary fibre intake, and the risk of developing myocardial infarction. Our results indicate that moderately high levels of enterolactone intake in men are associated with lower risk of experiencing myocardial infarction. Manuscript 5 ranks education level, physical activity, smoking status, and self-reported intake of dietary fibre and fatty acids according to their effects on body fat distribution. Increased levels of physical activity, a higher education level and a reduced intake of saturated fat from meat were ranked as the most strongly associated factors in both men and women. Increased intake of dietary fibre from grains in women, and increased intake of dietary fibre from fruits and vegetables in men, was also inversely associated with average waist circumference. CONCLUSION Both questionnaire-based and biological markers of the risk of developing diabetes or cardiovascular disease have been identified. Based on available population level measurements, reduced consumption of convenience foods, increased consumption of whole-grain products, fruits and vegetables, vegetable oil and pasta as well as increased physical activity are potential goals for interventions in northern Sweden.

Objectif. Décrire les attitudes et habitudes de Canadiens relativement à la préparation des aliments à la maison et au repas familial, afin de saisir les motivations à exploiter lors de la promotion de ces habitudes. Méthodes. Un sondage électronique de 39 questions à choix multiples a été placé sur le site des Diététistes du Canada du 16 novembre au 22 décembre 2006. Les énoncés analysés abordent la perception des bénéfices associés à la cuisine maison, à la planification des soupers et au repas familial, les obstacles à cuisiner, le temps de préparation et la planification des soupers, l’apprentissage de la cuisine, les sources d’idées recettes et la consommation des repas familiaux. Résultats. Au total, 4080 individus ont complété le questionnaire. Bien qu’ils croient que la cuisine maison puisse améliorer la qualité de l’alimentation et les comportements alimentaires, les répondants rencontrent plusieurs obstacles à la préparation des aliments au quotidien, parmi lesquels le manque de temps, d’énergie, d’idées et de planification. Bien qu’une majorité de Canadiens soupent en famille, il existe des écarts selon les groupes d’âge et les régions canadiennes. Conclusion. Cette étude souligne la pertinence d’élaborer des stratégies de communication pour informer les consommateurs sur les bénéfices de la cuisine maison et du repas en famille, afin de les aider à surmonter les défis associés à ces habitudes. Si les nutritionnistes sont des intervenants de choix, des collaborations interdisciplinaires sont proposées pour promouvoir une cuisine maison saine, bien planifiée, simplifiée et savourée en famille. / Objective. To describe Canadians' attitudes and habits with regard to home food preparation for family meals in order to seize the motivations to be exploited during the promotion of these habits. Methods. An electronic poll of 39 multiple-choice questions was posted on the Dieticians of Canada's website from November 16th till December 22nd, 2006. The analyzed statements cover the perception of the benefits associated with home cooking, supper planning and family meals, the barriers to cooking, the preparation time and supper planning, the development of cooking skills, sources of recipes ideas and consumption of family meals. Results. A total of 4080 individuals completed the questionnaire. Although they believe that home cooking can improve the food quality and eating habits, the participants meet several barriers to food preparation in everyday life, among which the lack of time, energy, ideas and planning. Although a majority of Canadians have family suppers, there are gaps according to age groups and Canadian regions. Conclusion. This study highlights the relevance of elaborating communications strategies to inform consumers of the benefits of home cooking and family meals in order to help them to deal with the challenges associated with these habits. If nutritionists are the best interveners, interdisciplinary collaborations are proposed to promote a healthy, well planned home cooking enjoyed with the family.

Measurement of household food insecurity is needed to identify the magnitude of food insecurity and assess the impact of development interventions. However, there is no commonly agreed measure of household food insecurity. While researchers continually experiment with new measures, the resultant measures are often complex and include numerous variables that still do not distinguish clearly between the food secure and the food insecure. This study set out to prepare a quick and convenient tool to measure household food security, using common household demographic and socio-economic variables commonly collected through a variety of household surveys. This has minimised data collection costs and assisted national food security units to continually measure and monitor household food insecurity. Food insecurity levels were estimated using data from a baseline survey conducted in a community in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Food security was estimated using a number of measures, including food quantity (adequacy), dietary diversity, dietary quality, coping strategies employed and the Coping Strategies Index. The study found that household food availability varied across the two seasons over which data were collected. Only the percentile of sample households with adequate food intakes (one third of the samples) consumed enough food during the lean period when agricultural production was low. Households with inadequate food intakes also had consumed insufficient energy and lower micronutrient intakes during the period when agricultural produce was more abundant. Energy, iron and protein consumption was positively related to the consumption of adequate food. Energy intake was a relatively good indicator of protein and micronutrient intakes during the leaner period. Consumption of foods from three food groups, namely cereals, legumes and vegetables and fruits were necessary for adequate food intake. Cereals were the most important foods, forming the base of most meals, while fats and animal sourced foods were not widely consumed. Diversifying consumption through fruits and vegetables contributed significantly and positively to improved household food intakes. Household dietary diversity and dietary quality improved during the period of plenty. The application of coping strategies was strongly related to household food intake and diversity. Engaging in more coping strategies and having resultant higher Coping Strategy Index scores was strongly associated with household food inadequacy intakes and low food diversity scores. As expected, sampled households employed more coping strategies during the lean season. The strong and significant relationships between the Coping Strategies Index scores, the number of coping strategies practised by households and the household food intake indices (the Household Food Intake Index and Nutrient Adequacy Ratios) show that food intake is a strong indicator for household food security. The Household Food Insecurity Index and the Household Food Insecurity Scale were developed using 13 potential household demographic and socio-economic variables to identify the food-insecure households. The results of these two new measures were correlated with the results of the common measures reported above and found to be useful determinants of food security. The study found that while the Household Food Insecurity Index explained the influence of demographic and socio-economic variables in household food insecurity, the Household Food Insecurity Scale is more convenient in application (easy data management and computation process), and it is strongly related to the Coping Strategies Index scores. Both the Household Food Insecurity Scale and the Household Food Insecurity Index were useful tools to measure household food security and differentiate between food security and food insecure households in Embo Community. More research is recommended to further test the usefulness of the proposed measures in various settings. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

It is widely accepted that street trading is a survivalist activity that yields low profits. Few, if any, studies investigate how much profit is earned; intra-household allocation; and contribution of this income towards households needs. Therefore, a glaring omission in street trading literature is a critical evaluation of the contribution of street trading to household food and livelihood security. A major strength and original contribution of this study to the wider context is the analysis of street trading as a household food and livelihood security coping strategy. This study investigated whether street traders had sufficient food for household consumption; whether street trading reduced vulnerability to hunger; and determined how income from street trading was spent by households. Seven innovative participatory tools applied through a unique research design, were used to elicit business; household and demographic information. Five fruit and vegetable vendors; three clothing and cosmetics; two food; one telephone service; and one video vendor participated. Street traders were categorised into four food security groups according to increasing Coping Strategy Index scores. These were: two traders in a seemingly food secure group; five in the relatively food secure group; four in the relatively food insecure group; and one in the food insecure group. The use of innovative participatory research tools led to several findings. Types of goods sold did not determine profitability, but profitability determined household food security. As household income decreased, Coping Strategy Index scores increased. This finding implied sufficient access to food for household consumption was determined primarily by income levels ranging from R250 to R10 000 per month. Low income traders used severe coping strategies and were more food insecure than other traders. The middle income traders used intermediate coping strategies while the high income group used less severe strategies or did not apply food security coping strategies such as eating less preferred foods. This study found that child dependents and unemployed household members increased household food insecurity. Risk sharing networks among street traders played a key role in accessing cash for food and the sustainability of the micro-enterprises. Social grants reduced household food insecurity and provided a cash safety net for economic activity. Assets reduced hunger and provided crisis security. The study has shown that street trading supplemented low income levels for pensioners and low income earners. Street trading was a primary livelihood strategy for people who had no access to income from pensions or other/formal employment. The study concluded that income from street trading was vital to improve access to food for household consumption. Street traders who had established customers; and access to material and social assets consumed a greater variety of foods than street traders who were fairly new, lacked access to loans (through family and friends) and owned few or no material assets. All participating street traders began trading as a coping strategy to increase household cash. Their trading evolved into an adaptive or permanent livelihood strategy. Households used a mix of food related coping strategies and street trading was an adaptive strategy, rather than a coping strategy to access sufficient food for household consumption. Participating street traders were survivalists as street trading provided a daily net for subsistence. Although street trading income was barely sufficient to sustain households, it provided much needed income to pay school fees; rent; water and electricity. Street trading is therefore critical to household welfare for participating street traders; but infrastructure and resource constraints trapped street traders in survivalist enterprises and exacerbated their vulnerability to food and livelihood security. This study fills a gap in understanding of street trading behaviour in Raisethorpe. This is the first study to apply participatory research methods to comprehensively explore street trader coping strategies and the first study to attempt to link street trading, livelihood security and food security. It is recommended that municipalities adopt a developmental approach to street trading that includes trading sites with secure tenure and infrastructure such as shelter; tables; water and sanitation. Policy reform in terms of issuing trading permits and developing regulations for renting trading sites is imperative. Since this study found that profitability determined household food security, business advice and skills training should be provided for all street traders to promote business sustainability and profitability. A final recommendation is that street trading be recognised as a survivalist strategy that requires further investigation and policy measures to improve income and ensure food security for vulnerable groups. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008.

The Free State Department of Agriculture distributed food security packages to Qwaqwa households in 2003. The purpose of distributing food security packages was to improve the food security status of poor households. Thirty households received food security packages to the value of R4500.00 each between March and May 2003. The packages were designed to include: garden fencing materials, gardening tools, winter and summer seeds, fertiliser, water hoses, twenty village chickens, chicken feed and a portable, ready made poultry cage. This study sets out to evaluate the impact of these packages distributed by the Department of Agriculture to Qwaqwa households by comparing dietary diversity, frequency of consumption, income sources, coping strategy applications and food security status. Maxwell et al 's (2003) Coping Strategy Index (CSI) was used to determine relative food security status. Data on household demographics, food consumption patterns and consumption coping strategies was collected from 30 recipient households and 30 non-recipient households whose names were on the waiting list for food security packages in Qwaqwa. The results of the study showed that the packages improved food security in recipient households. First, the frequency of consumption of most foods included in packages (carrot, beetroot, eggs as by-product of chicken and chicken) was higher among recipient households. Food consumption patterns improved in recipient households as more households diversified food intake. Second, some coping strategies applied by recipient and non-recipient households were similar, but the frequency of application of these strategies differed between households in the two groups. The frequency of application of similar strategies (eating less preferred food, purchasing food on credit, visiting friends to eat with them, restricting consumption of adults in order for small children to eat, borrowing food, sending children to visit relatives, skipping entire meal eaten in a day, reducing meal sizes, and sending household members to beg) was higher in non-recipient households. The classification of strategies according to severity levels (least severe, moderately severe, severe and very severe) was done by community members. Recipient households applied the least severe strategies and moderately severe coping strategies more than non-recipient households. Non-recipient households applied more severe and very severe strategies more often than recipient households. As a result, recipient households' average coping strategy index score was lower than that of the non-recipient households, suggesting that food security packages improved recipient households' food security status. Lack of suitable scavenging space for the chickens and lack of knowledge of freely available chicken feed constrained the impact of the packages on household food security. Recommendations include training of extension officers and households in village chicken rearing and harvesting of chicken feed. It is recommended that the Department of Agriculture should adhere to its original plan of giving twenty-month old chicken to households and should use the Coping Strategy Index for identifying food insecure households and monitoring and evaluation of the impact of the food security programme. / Thesis (M.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.

While South Africa is nationally food secure, the m ajority of rural households are food insecure. Community and home gardens are widel y promoted to alleviate food insecurity. Households in the Maphephetheni Uplands , KwaZulu-Natal have come together to cultivate community gardens, producing food crops for consumption and selling surpluses. This study evaluated the contrib ution of community gardens towards alleviating food insecurity in the Maphephe theni Uplands. A survey was conducted among 53 participants of community garden s and their households. A questionnaire and focus group discussions were used to evaluate the following household food security measures: anxiety and uncer tainty about food supply; consumption of a variety of preferred foods; consum ption of sufficient quantities of food; and the prevalence of food insecurity. Eighty percent of the participating households had insufficient food intake, 72% consum ed food of inadequate quality and 89% were anxious and uncertain about food suppl ies. Among the households surveyed using the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale, 88.7% were categorised as severely food insecure, often going a day withou t eating, going to bed hungry or running out of food for more than ten days in a mon th. Eight percent of households were moderately food secure, and three percent were mildly food insecure. No households were food secure according to the classi fication. Only 11% of the household food was sourced from community gardens, while 83% was purchased and six percent was sourced from home gardens. Limited community garden sizes, drought, floods, theft, pests and diseases were ide ntified by community gardeners as factors limiting the contribution of community gard ens to household food security. Community gardens have not alleviated food insecuri ty among the participating households. It is recommended that an investigation should be carried out on how productivity could be improved through appropriate crop husbandry practices to reduce crop loses. Since purchasing is the main sou rce of food among community gardeners, alternative income generating activities need to be investigated. / Thesis (M.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.