<p>In most developing countries, forest resources are a major source of livelihood for forest dwellers. Forests provide fuel wood, farm products, meat, timber and plants of high medicinal value, including Prunus africana. The collection of medicinal plants is also an important source of cash income for some forest communities, and widely relied on to cure illnesses (Poffenberger, 1993). Because of this, the poor forest dwellers in particular are forced to exert pressure on their surrounding environment to make ends meet. Indiscriminate exploitation of forest resources has cost some forest dwellers dearly as they are now experiencing marked reduction of wildlife, forest cover, soil fertility and most importantly water supply, which is a key to life. Prunus africana has a very high economic and medicinal value locally as well as internationally. The exploitation of this species is a very profitable activity in most parts of Africa where it occurs, including the Mount Cameroon region. In recent years, most youths and young men in the Mount Cameroon region have seemingly become less interested in their usual income generating activities (farming, hunting, etc.) because of reduced productivity and have taken up Prunus harvesting as their major source of income. Increase in demand for this species by the French pharmaceutical company (Plantecam), weak institutional capacity to control exploitation, uncontrolled access into the forest, scramble for diminished stock by legal and illegal exploiters, destruction of wild stock by unsustainable practices, and insufficient regeneration of the species in the past have almost driven this species to extinction in certain parts of Cameroon and made it severely threatened in others. Prunus africana is presently threatened with extinction in the entire Mount Cameroon region. In response to this, the Mount Cameroon Project (MCP) and the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MINEF) helped some communities (Bokwoango and Mapanja) in the Mount Cameroon region to form Prunus africana harvesters’ unions with the aim of preserving the resource and improving the socio-economic benefits. The principal aim of the Bokwoango Prunus africana harvesters’ union is to ensure sustainable exploitation of Prunus africana while saving money for important development projects for individual members, their families and the entire community. This piece of work highlights the different facets of Prunus africana management in Cameroon in general and the Bokwoango community in particular. The study examines the socio-economic impact of Prunus africana management in the Bokwoango community and shows specifically the management role played by the Bokwoango Prunus africana harvesters’ union to reduce the rate of exploitation of Prunus africana and also to ensure benefit sharing of the earnings from sales of Prunus bark. It at the same time brings out the constraints encountered by harvesters as well as the opportunities that can make the union become more viable to the socio-economic development of the Bokwoango community. Results of this study show that for the short period that the Bokwoango Prunus africana harvesters’ union has existed, the socio-economic changes in this community are encouraging if one compares the present situation with that before the formation of the union. Most importantly, there has been increased awareness on the great need to conserve not only the threatened Prunus africana species but also other threatened plant and animal species in the region through sustainable hunting, harvesting and regeneration. Some proposals are made for efficient natural resource management and improvements on livelihood through alternative income generating activities. The study ends with recommendations for policy and institutional reforms as well as suggestions for further research in sustainable management of Prunus africana.</p>

Thesis (M.S.)--Miami University, Dept. of Botany, 2007. / Title from first page of PDF document. Includes bibliographical references (p.20-24).

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This work describes the seasonal analysis of the yield and chemical composition of the essential oil (EO) for the native species Piper gaudichaudianum Kunth in a population of Santa Maria, in order to determine the best time for collection. The effect of leaves drying on the yield and chemical composition of EO was also verified, in order to evaluate the possible influence of this post-harvest process on the extractive features. The EO oil and its major constituent had their fungitoxicity assessed against phytopathogenic and wood decay fungi. EO from fresh and dried leaves, and reproductive organs (inflorescences and fruits) were extracted separately by hydrodistillation, and then had their yields determined (w/ w %). The chemical composition was analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and gas chromatography with flame ionization detector (GC-FID). Additionally, fungitoxic assays were performed by the agar dilution method using PSA (potato-sucrose-agar). The presence of reproductive organs (RO) did not affect the leaves (L) EO of P. gaudichaudianum on the observed year, with a minimum value of 1.32% and a maximum of 1.61% without significant difference (p > 0.05). Chemical analysis of L and RO EO revealed that these are predominantly formed by phenylpropanoid dilapiolle (59.2 to 87.8%), while myristicin was identified only in the EO of the RO. The chemical composition of EO oils had no influence of seasonality and phenophases, being possible to collect the plant material at any time of year. Drying of the leaves did not affect the yield and composition of EO. The L and RO EO of P. gaudichaudianum presented fungitoxic activity for phytopathogenic fungi (Fusarium moniliforme and Botryosphaeria rhodina) and also for wood decay fungi (Pycnoporus sanguineus and Gloeophyllum trabeum) at concentrations of 0.25-1.0 uL / mL. The results indicated that the major constituent dilapiolle is responsible for the activity. / Este trabalho descreve a análise sazonal do rendimento e composição química do óleo essencial (OE) da espécie nativa Piper gaudichaudianum Kunth em uma população de Santa Maria, RS, com o objetivo de determinar a época mais adequada para coleta. Também foi verificado o efeito da secagem de folhas sobre o rendimento e a composição química dos OE, a fim de avaliar a possível influência desse processo pós-colheita sobre estas características do extrativo. O EO bem como seu constituinte majoritário tiveram sua atividade fungitóxica avaliada contra fungos fitopatogênicos e apodrecedores da madeira. Os OE de folhas frescas, secas e órgãos reprodutivos (inflorescências e frutos) foram extraídos separadamente através do método de hidrodestilação e em seguida foram determinados seus rendimentos (m/m %). A composição química foi analisada por cromatografia gasosa acoplada a espectrometria de massas (CG-EM) e cromatografia gasosa com detector de ionização em chama (CG-DIC). Adicionalmente, os testes fungitóxicos foram realizados através do método de diluição em Ágar usando BSA (batata-sacarose-ágar). A presença de órgãos reprodutivos (OR) não alterou o rendimento do OE de folhas (F) de P. gaudichaudianum no ano observado, apresentando valor mínimo de 1,32% e máximo de 1,61% sem diferença significativa (p > 0,05). A análise química dos OE de F e OR evidenciou que estes são formados preponderantemente pelo fenilpropanóide dilapiol (59,2-87,8%) enquanto que a miristicina foi identificada apenas para os OE de OR. A composição química dos OE não teve influência da sazonalidade e das fenofases, sendo possível a coleta do material vegetal em qualquer época do ano. A secagem das folhas não alterou o rendimento e composição química dos OE. Os OE de F e OR de P. gaudichaudianum apresentaram atividade fungitóxica para os fungos fitopatogênicos (Fusarium moniliforme e Botryosphaeria rhodina) e também para os apodrecedores da madeira (Pycnoporus sanguineus e Gloeophyllum trabeum) em concentrações de 0,25-1,0 μL/mL. Os resultados indicaram que o constituinte majoritário dilapiol é o responsável pela atividade.

O presente estudo teve por objetivo avaliar a sustentabilidade da extração do oleorresina de Copaifera multijuga, incluindo a análise dos fatores que influenciam na sua produção e a estrutura anatômica do lenho e dos anéis de crescimento. Foram selecionadas árvores de C. multijuga produtivas e não produtivas, sendo 60 árvores de população natural na Reserva Ducke, Manaus, Amazonas, Brasil (com 7 e 32 anos de repouso da extração do oleorresina) e 70 árvores de duas plantações na EEST do INPA, Manaus. As árvores da população natural foram monitoradas para a avaliação da produção de oleorresina por um período de 3 anos, considerando as variáveis: DAP do tronco, % do cerne e idade das árvores, tempo e sazonalidade climática. As árvores de C. multijuga das plantações foram avaliadas em relação à produção ou não de oleorresina. Do tronco das árvores produtoras e não produtoras de oleorresina das duas áreas de estudo foram coletadas amostras radiais do lenho para a análise da densidade (densitometria de raios X) e da estrutura anatômica do lenho e dos anéis de crescimento. Os anéis de crescimento foram analisados para determinar o efeito da sazonalidade climática e aplicados na determinação da idade das árvores, do incremento radial acumulado e da taxa de crescimento anual do tronco das árvores. Ainda, os anéis de crescimento foram relacionados com as variáveis climáticas de precipitação e temperatura do período. Os resultados indicaram que as árvores de C. multijuga produtivas e não produtivas de oleorresina podem gerar descendentes com os dois fenótipos. A produção do oleorresina mostrou maior relação com o diâmetro e % de cerne do tronco das árvores, em comparação com a sua idade, sofrendo influência direta do intervalo de tempo entre coletas, sendo que a época ideal para realizar a extração é durante o período chuvoso. A coloração do oleorresina variou de incolor ao castanho médio, com densidade de 0,92 g.cm-3 e viscosidade de 37,3 MPa/s, sua composição química não apresentou relação com a idade ou tipo de solo, tendo como constituinte majoritário o &beta;-cariofileno. Árvores consideradas produtivas diferem na anatomia do lenho das não produtivas unicamente pelo maior diâmetro dos vasos (produtivas). Todas as árvores de C. multijuga são produtoras de oleorresina, porém, nem todas as árvores são produtivas. O oleorresina sintetizado nas células epiteliais dos canais secretores é transportado e armazenado nos vasos do cerne, pelo parênquima radial. O perfil radial da densidade do lenho das árvores de C. multijuga, possibilita a demarcação do limite dos anéis de crescimento, indicando um aumento gradativo no sentido medula-casca e densidade aparente média de 0,74 g/cm3. A análise dendrocronológica comprovou a anuidade da formação dos anéis de crescimento, indicando árvores de C. multijuga, de população natural, com 108 anos; o crescimento das árvores parece sofrer maior influência da precipitação que da temperatura. Ainda, a análise dos anéis de crescimento indicou um incremento médio anual do raio do tronco das árvores de C. multijuga de população natural e de plantação, de 0,24 e 0,31 cm, respectivamente. / The aiming of this study was to evaluate which factors affect the sustainability of the production of oil resin extraction in Copaifera multijuga trees such wood anatomical structure and growth rings. Among productive and non-productive trees, it was selected 60 trees from a natural population in the A. Ducke Forest Reserve in Manaus, Amazonas state, Brazil (two distinct groups were chosen 7 and 32 years interval of extractions). For reforested areas 70 trees were chosen in two stands at Tropical Silviculture Station also near Manaus. The oleoresin extraction was monitored during three years in trees of natural populations. It was taken into account DBH, % heartwood, tree ages, time and seasonality. In plantation systems C. multijuga trees were evaluated in relation of their production. From the two study-areas, it was collected radial wood samples in producing and non-producing oilresin trees for wood density (X-ray densitometry), as well anatomical structure of xylem and growth rings. The growth rings were analyzed to study the effect of climatic seasonality, to determine tree ages, the accumulated radial increment and annual rates of tree growth. They also were related to precipitation and temperature of the analyzed period. The results showed that both productive and non-productive trees can generate descendent with these two phenotypes. The oil resin production showed stronger relationship with diameter and % trunk heartwood than age. Interval time between extractions affects directly the production and the best period to collect them is in the rainy season. The oleoresin coloring ranged from colorless to medium brown, with a density of 0,92 g.cm-3 and viscosity of 37,3 MPa/s. Its chemical composition was not associated with age or soil type. &beta;-cariofileno was the major constituent. Trees classified as productive differ to non productive in their wood anatomy only by largest vessel diameters shown in productive trees. All C. multijuga trees produce oleoresin, however not all of them are productive. The oleoresin synthesized in the epithelial cells of the secretory channels is transported and stored in the vessels of the heartwood by the radial parenchyma.The radial profile of wood density of C. multijuga trees allows the demarcation of growth ring limits, indicating a gradual increase in the pith-bark and 0,74 g.cm-3 mean apparent density. Dendrocronological analysis proved that growth rings has been formed annually. It was observed 108 years-old C. multijuga trees in natural population. Precipitation has more influence in tree growth than temperature. Finally, growth ring analysis showed that annual growth increment of trunk radius in natural population and plantations were 0,24 and 0,31 cm, respectively.

Memoria para optar al Título Profesional de Ingeniero Forestal / En los últimos veinte años Chile ha tenido un desarrollo forestal importante, influenciado por estrategias políticas y económicas direccionadas a participar de forma activa en el comercio internacional. En este proceso, el sector forestal sostuvo ritmos de crecimiento variables en el tiempo. Debido a factores internos y externos al país y a un patrón de desarrollo que consolidó a tres grandes grupos empresariales que hoy dominan la actividad económica forestal. El estudio analiza el desarrollo que han experimentado las exportaciones y las empresas forestales, desde la perspectiva económica y comercial, entre 1995 y 2015, como resultado de las principales iniciativas políticas y económicas formuladas antes y durante el período de estudio. Se distinguen los factores más significativos que han incidido en el comportamiento de las exportaciones forestales chilenas, y se analizan los instrumentos políticos y legales que han afectado dicho desarrollo. De igual modo también se caracteriza el crecimiento del sector empresarial forestal de Chile, con especial consideración a su estructura y origen, y su relación con las condiciones políticas y económicas del período. Para lograr los objetivos, se extraen los datos de organismos gubernamentales y empresas privadas, cuyo análisis está referido a: las leyes relacionadas con el rubro, los efectos de la Crisis Asiática y Crisis Subprime; la evolución y velocidad de cambio de los montos exportados por producto; la composición de las exportaciones; la variación de la balanza comercial forestal; la variación de los mercados; los tratados de libre comercio; las grandes inversiones privadas en infraestructura a nivel nacional y latinoamericano; la salida y entrada de empresas al mercado; las áreas de mayor crecimiento; la propiedad de las empresas; los cambios estratégicos percibidos en el sector empresarial; las políticas económicas, y el apoyo a pequeñas y medianas empresas forestales. Finalmente, el estudio pretende responder preguntas relacionadas con las principales iniciativas políticas y económicas que influenciaron la evolución del sector, así como las razones que pueden justificar la evolución que han tenido las exportaciones y el desarrollo de las empresas del sector forestal durante el período de estudio. / Forest industry has been an important contributor to the economy of Chile for over twenty years as a result of political and economic strategies geared to encourage international trade. Under domestic and foreign up-and-downs the internationalization process faced uneven growth paces over the years and consolidated three large business groups which currently lead the sector economic activity. Within this scheme and from the economic and commercial perspectives the forest business development between 1995 and 2015 is analyzed, as a result of the major political and economic initiatives formulated before and during the study period. The most significant factors that have influenced Chilean forest exports are recognized associated to political and legal tools which have somehow affected such development. The Chilean forest business sector expansion is also characterized - particularly its origin and structure - related to the economic and political settings. The official and private information collected as well as the analysis involved referred to: laws connected to the forest activity; Asia and Subprime Crisis as factors of Chilean forest development; the evolution as well as the speed of change of forest product exports; forest products trade balance and target markets; free trade agreements; major private investments in domestic infrastructure and in Latin America; companies entry and exit of market; larger areas of growth; companies ownership; strategic changes perceived by business; economic policies and support to medium and small size forest companies. Finally, this study intends to answer questions related to the major political and economic initiatives that affected the forest sector growth, the reasons behind the expansion of forest product exports as well as the development of the forest sector companies over the study period.

Even though some Dracaena species are used as medicine, their utilization as food is rather unusual. In northern Angola, however, leaves and underground tubers of Dracaena camerooniana Baker are frequently consumed. In particular, the leaves are of increasing economic value in the region. But the anatomy and nutritional aspects of the plant have not been studied so far. Therefore, a detailed anatomic description of the plant was conducted. In a second step the nutritional value of the defined material was analysed, providing a basis for the discussion of a more intensive utilisation of this rainforest shrub.

In most developing countries, forest resources are a major source of livelihood for forest dwellers. Forests provide fuel wood, farm products, meat, timber and plants of high medicinal value, including Prunus africana. The collection of medicinal plants is also an important source of cash income for some forest communities, and widely relied on to cure illnesses (Poffenberger, 1993). Because of this, the poor forest dwellers in particular are forced to exert pressure on their surrounding environment to make ends meet. Indiscriminate exploitation of forest resources has cost some forest dwellers dearly as they are now experiencing marked reduction of wildlife, forest cover, soil fertility and most importantly water supply, which is a key to life. Prunus africana has a very high economic and medicinal value locally as well as internationally. The exploitation of this species is a very profitable activity in most parts of Africa where it occurs, including the Mount Cameroon region. In recent years, most youths and young men in the Mount Cameroon region have seemingly become less interested in their usual income generating activities (farming, hunting, etc.) because of reduced productivity and have taken up Prunus harvesting as their major source of income. Increase in demand for this species by the French pharmaceutical company (Plantecam), weak institutional capacity to control exploitation, uncontrolled access into the forest, scramble for diminished stock by legal and illegal exploiters, destruction of wild stock by unsustainable practices, and insufficient regeneration of the species in the past have almost driven this species to extinction in certain parts of Cameroon and made it severely threatened in others. Prunus africana is presently threatened with extinction in the entire Mount Cameroon region. In response to this, the Mount Cameroon Project (MCP) and the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MINEF) helped some communities (Bokwoango and Mapanja) in the Mount Cameroon region to form Prunus africana harvesters’ unions with the aim of preserving the resource and improving the socio-economic benefits. The principal aim of the Bokwoango Prunus africana harvesters’ union is to ensure sustainable exploitation of Prunus africana while saving money for important development projects for individual members, their families and the entire community. This piece of work highlights the different facets of Prunus africana management in Cameroon in general and the Bokwoango community in particular. The study examines the socio-economic impact of Prunus africana management in the Bokwoango community and shows specifically the management role played by the Bokwoango Prunus africana harvesters’ union to reduce the rate of exploitation of Prunus africana and also to ensure benefit sharing of the earnings from sales of Prunus bark. It at the same time brings out the constraints encountered by harvesters as well as the opportunities that can make the union become more viable to the socio-economic development of the Bokwoango community. Results of this study show that for the short period that the Bokwoango Prunus africana harvesters’ union has existed, the socio-economic changes in this community are encouraging if one compares the present situation with that before the formation of the union. Most importantly, there has been increased awareness on the great need to conserve not only the threatened Prunus africana species but also other threatened plant and animal species in the region through sustainable hunting, harvesting and regeneration. Some proposals are made for efficient natural resource management and improvements on livelihood through alternative income generating activities. The study ends with recommendations for policy and institutional reforms as well as suggestions for further research in sustainable management of Prunus africana.

A extração de produtos florestais é uma estratégia de sustento importante para populações que vivem próximas a remanescentes de florestas tropicais. Entre estes produtos, a carne silvestre é fonte importante de proteína e renda monetária. A sobreçaca, no entanto, pode levar à extinção local de espécies, comprometendo a integridade das florestas tropicais e o sustento de populações humanas. Como consequência, pode também levar à diminuição do valor atribuído às florestas pelos moradores, incentivando a sua conversão a outras formas de uso da terra. Sabe-se que fatores econômicos, como renda monetária e riqueza, são determinantes importantes da caça e do consumo de carne silvestre. Porém, tem sido sugerido que o efeito destes indicadores econômicos dependa do contexto ambiental - em especial, a cobertura florestal, associada à disponibilidade de animais para caça e a distância ao centro urbano, associada ao acesso a outras fontes de renda e proteína - e do contexto cultural, em particular, a região de origem dos moradores. No entanto, estudos prévios não consideraram todos estes fatores simultaneamente. Além disso, pouco ainda se sabe sobre qual o valor atribuído às florestas por populações rurais e sua relação com a caça e o consumo de carne silvestre. Através de questionários estruturados aplicados por meio de entrevista à população rural de uma região extensa e heterogênea na Amazônia oriental, esta tese teve como objetivos investigar: (i) o efeito de fatores ambientais em maior escala como determinantes da caça e do consumo de carne silvestre (Capítulo 1); (ii) a importância relativa e as interações entre fatores em escalas distintas - econômicos, culturais e ambientais - na determinação da caça e do consumo de carne silvestre (Capítulo 2) e; (iii) se a caça e o consumo de carne silvestre, bem como o desmatamento, que pode comprometer esse recurso, estão associados à percepção do valor das florestas (Capítulo 3). No Capítulo 1, os resultados indicam que fatores ambientais são determinantes mais importantes da caça do que do consumo de carne silvestre, que é mais frequente que a caça, sugerindo a relevância do compartilhamento e/ou comércio como formas de obtenção de carne silvestre. Enquanto o consumo de carne de silvestre foi um pouco mais frequente em áreas remotas e mais florestadas, a caça foi mais frequente em áreas mais florestadas, mas também em áreas mais próximas a centros urbanos. Assim, os resultados sugerem que é improvável que a pressão de caça diminua com a crescente migração para áreas urbanas que hoje se observa na Amazônia. O Capítulo 2 traz evidências de que o consumo de carne silvestre, e principalmente a caça, dependem não só do contexto ambiental, mas também do cultural, e que os efeitos de indicadores econômicos dependem de fatores ambientais. A caça e o consumo de carne silvestre foram mais frequentes nas famílias de origem na região Amazônica, entre aqueles que dependem mais de atividades de subsistência, e ambos aumentaram com a renda monetária em áreas próximas a centros urbanos e/ou menos florestadas, mas diminuíram com a renda monetária em áreas remotas e/ou florestadas. Isto sugere que o sucesso de intervenções econômicas que visem tanto à redução da pobreza quanto à conservação da biodiversidade depende do contexto ambiental, e é muito mais provável em áreas mais florestadas e remotas. Os resultados do Capítulo 3 indicam que a quantidade de carne silvestre consumida influencia positivamente a percepção do valor utilitário da floresta, enquanto que a quantidade de florestas remanescentes no entorno influencia positivamente a percepção de seu valor intrínseco. Assim, para além de estratégias que visem o bem-estar humano via incentivos econômicos, há oportunidade para iniciativas que considerem outros aspectos do bem-estar associados aos serviços providos pela floresta - sejam recursos como a carne silvestre ou benefícios culturais e estéticos. Ao mesmo tempo, os resultados apontam o potencial de um perigoso ciclo de desvalorização da floresta, em que o desmatamento leva a diminuição da percepção do seu valor, que, por sua vez, pode agravar o desmatamento, indicando a urgência de investimentos em iniciativas de conservação nas paisagens mais alteradas / The extraction of forest products is an important livelihood strategy for human populations living in and around tropical forest remnants. Among these products, bushmeat is an important source of protein and monetary income. However, overhunting can lead to local species extinction, compromising the integrity of tropical forests and the livelihoods of human populations. As a consequence, it can also lead to a decrease in the value local people attribute to forests, further promoting land conversion. It is well known that economic factors, such as monetary income and asset-wealth, are important drivers of bushmeat hunting and consumption. However, it has been suggested that the effect of economic factors depend on the environmental context - especially forest cover, associated with game availability, and distance to urban centers, associated with alternative sources of protein and income - and on the cultural context, particularly the region of origin of residents. Nevertheless, previous studies did not consider all these factors simultaneously. In addition, little is known about the value attributed to forests by rural populations and its association with bushmeat hunting and consumption. Using questionnaire-based interviews with the rural population of a wide heterogeneous region in eastern Amazonia, this thesis aimed at investigating (i) the effects of large-scale environmental factors as drivers of bushmeat hunting and consumption (Chapter 1); (ii) the relative importance and interactions between factors at different scales - economic, cultural and environmental - in driving bushmeat hunting and consumption (Chapter 2) and; (iii) whether bushmeat hunting and consumption, as well as deforestation, which may compromise this resource, are associated with the perception of forest values (Chapter 3). In Chapter 1, the results indicate that environmental factors are more important drivers of hunting than of bushmeat consumption, which is widespread, suggesting significant bushmeat sharing and/ or trading. While bushmeat consumption was slightly more likely in remote and more forested areas, hunting was more likely in more forested areas but also in areas closer to urban centers. These results suggest that hunting pressure is unlikely to decrease with the increasing migration to urban areas nowadays observed in the Amazon. Chapter 2 brings evidences that bushmeat consumption, and especially hunting, depend not only on the environmental context but also on the cultural context, and that the effects of economic variables depend on environmental factors. Bushmeat hunting and consumption were more likely in households with Amazonian origin, with greater reliance on subsistence activities and both increased with monetary income in less remote and/or less forested areas, but decreased with monetary income in more remote and/or more forested areas. This result suggests that the success of economic interventions aiming at both poverty alleviation and biodiversity conservation depend on the environmental context, and is more likely in more forested and remote areas. The results of Chapter 3 indicate that the amount of consumed bushmeat positively influences the perception of forest instrumental value, while forest cover in the surroundings positively influences the perception of forest intrinsic value. These results suggest that, beyond strategies that aim at human well-being through economic incentives, there is opportunity for initiatives that consider other aspects of well-being associated with services provided by forests - whether resources such as bushmeat or cultural and aesthetic benefits. At the same time, the results suggest the potential for a dangerous reinforcing cycle of forest depreciation, in which deforestation erodes perceptions of forest values, which may in turn facilitate further deforestation, indicating the urgent need to invest in conservation initiatives in more altered landscapes

A principal estratégia empregada com o intuito de assegurar a conservação da biodiversidade tem sido a implementação de áreas protegidas, especialmente aquelas de uso restrito, que muitas vezes deixa de considerar no seu estabelecimento a cultura, contexto socioeconômico e político ou o meio de vida das comunidades no entorno que antes interagiam com a área. Entretanto diversos trabalhos têm demonstrado o potencial de se promover esta conservação através de sistemas produtivos, harmonizando proteção dos recursos naturais ao desenvolvimento territorial. Neste contexto, o presente estudo aborta o potencial do manejo florestal comunitário, destinado à produção de frutos, em promover a conservação da palmeira juçara (Euterpe edulis Mart.), espécie drasticamente sobreexplorada pelo corte ilegal de palmito. Para isso foi realizado o levantamento da estrutura populacional e da produção de frutos em áreas de sistemas agroflorestais, florestas secundárias manejadas e áreas de proteção integral no litoral norte do Estado de São Paulo, na área de abrangência do Núcleo Picinguaba do Parque Estadual da Serra do Mar. Foram também realizadas estimativas de retorno econômico para o manejo de frutos e de palmito. Constatou-se que o manejo florestal comunitário, especialmente em florestas secundárias, é mais efetivo em conservar a juçara que áreas sob uso restrito. Paralelamente, o manejo destinado à obtenção de frutos se mostrou mais rentável que o manejo de palmito, além de ser mais favorável à conservação da espécie e à disponibilidade de frutos para a fauna. / The establishment of protected areas has been considered the main strategy to ensure biodiversity conservation, especially those of restricted use, which often fails to address local issues such as culture, socioeconomic and political context or the livelihoods of communities the used to have straight interaction with the landscape. However, several studies have demonstrated the potential to promote conservation through productive systems, while harmonizing protection of natural resources to territorial development. In this context, the present study addresses the potential of community forestry in promoting the conservation of juçara palm, a species drastically overharvested by illegal cutting of palm hearts. Thus, the population structure and fruit production in agroforestry systems, managed secondary forests and strictly protected areas were surveyed. Estimates of economic return for fruit and palm heart management were also made. It was found that community forest management, especially in secondary forests is more effective for conserving juçara than areas under restricted use regime. In the meanwhile, the management to obtain fruits was more profitable than the management for palm heart, besides being more favorable for the species conservation and fruit availability for wildlife.

A extração de produtos florestais é uma estratégia de sustento importante para populações que vivem próximas a remanescentes de florestas tropicais. Entre estes produtos, a carne silvestre é fonte importante de proteína e renda monetária. A sobreçaca, no entanto, pode levar à extinção local de espécies, comprometendo a integridade das florestas tropicais e o sustento de populações humanas. Como consequência, pode também levar à diminuição do valor atribuído às florestas pelos moradores, incentivando a sua conversão a outras formas de uso da terra. Sabe-se que fatores econômicos, como renda monetária e riqueza, são determinantes importantes da caça e do consumo de carne silvestre. Porém, tem sido sugerido que o efeito destes indicadores econômicos dependa do contexto ambiental - em especial, a cobertura florestal, associada à disponibilidade de animais para caça e a distância ao centro urbano, associada ao acesso a outras fontes de renda e proteína - e do contexto cultural, em particular, a região de origem dos moradores. No entanto, estudos prévios não consideraram todos estes fatores simultaneamente. Além disso, pouco ainda se sabe sobre qual o valor atribuído às florestas por populações rurais e sua relação com a caça e o consumo de carne silvestre. Através de questionários estruturados aplicados por meio de entrevista à população rural de uma região extensa e heterogênea na Amazônia oriental, esta tese teve como objetivos investigar: (i) o efeito de fatores ambientais em maior escala como determinantes da caça e do consumo de carne silvestre (Capítulo 1); (ii) a importância relativa e as interações entre fatores em escalas distintas - econômicos, culturais e ambientais - na determinação da caça e do consumo de carne silvestre (Capítulo 2) e; (iii) se a caça e o consumo de carne silvestre, bem como o desmatamento, que pode comprometer esse recurso, estão associados à percepção do valor das florestas (Capítulo 3). No Capítulo 1, os resultados indicam que fatores ambientais são determinantes mais importantes da caça do que do consumo de carne silvestre, que é mais frequente que a caça, sugerindo a relevância do compartilhamento e/ou comércio como formas de obtenção de carne silvestre. Enquanto o consumo de carne de silvestre foi um pouco mais frequente em áreas remotas e mais florestadas, a caça foi mais frequente em áreas mais florestadas, mas também em áreas mais próximas a centros urbanos. Assim, os resultados sugerem que é improvável que a pressão de caça diminua com a crescente migração para áreas urbanas que hoje se observa na Amazônia. O Capítulo 2 traz evidências de que o consumo de carne silvestre, e principalmente a caça, dependem não só do contexto ambiental, mas também do cultural, e que os efeitos de indicadores econômicos dependem de fatores ambientais. A caça e o consumo de carne silvestre foram mais frequentes nas famílias de origem na região Amazônica, entre aqueles que dependem mais de atividades de subsistência, e ambos aumentaram com a renda monetária em áreas próximas a centros urbanos e/ou menos florestadas, mas diminuíram com a renda monetária em áreas remotas e/ou florestadas. Isto sugere que o sucesso de intervenções econômicas que visem tanto à redução da pobreza quanto à conservação da biodiversidade depende do contexto ambiental, e é muito mais provável em áreas mais florestadas e remotas. Os resultados do Capítulo 3 indicam que a quantidade de carne silvestre consumida influencia positivamente a percepção do valor utilitário da floresta, enquanto que a quantidade de florestas remanescentes no entorno influencia positivamente a percepção de seu valor intrínseco. Assim, para além de estratégias que visem o bem-estar humano via incentivos econômicos, há oportunidade para iniciativas que considerem outros aspectos do bem-estar associados aos serviços providos pela floresta - sejam recursos como a carne silvestre ou benefícios culturais e estéticos. Ao mesmo tempo, os resultados apontam o potencial de um perigoso ciclo de desvalorização da floresta, em que o desmatamento leva a diminuição da percepção do seu valor, que, por sua vez, pode agravar o desmatamento, indicando a urgência de investimentos em iniciativas de conservação nas paisagens mais alteradas / The extraction of forest products is an important livelihood strategy for human populations living in and around tropical forest remnants. Among these products, bushmeat is an important source of protein and monetary income. However, overhunting can lead to local species extinction, compromising the integrity of tropical forests and the livelihoods of human populations. As a consequence, it can also lead to a decrease in the value local people attribute to forests, further promoting land conversion. It is well known that economic factors, such as monetary income and asset-wealth, are important drivers of bushmeat hunting and consumption. However, it has been suggested that the effect of economic factors depend on the environmental context - especially forest cover, associated with game availability, and distance to urban centers, associated with alternative sources of protein and income - and on the cultural context, particularly the region of origin of residents. Nevertheless, previous studies did not consider all these factors simultaneously. In addition, little is known about the value attributed to forests by rural populations and its association with bushmeat hunting and consumption. Using questionnaire-based interviews with the rural population of a wide heterogeneous region in eastern Amazonia, this thesis aimed at investigating (i) the effects of large-scale environmental factors as drivers of bushmeat hunting and consumption (Chapter 1); (ii) the relative importance and interactions between factors at different scales - economic, cultural and environmental - in driving bushmeat hunting and consumption (Chapter 2) and; (iii) whether bushmeat hunting and consumption, as well as deforestation, which may compromise this resource, are associated with the perception of forest values (Chapter 3). In Chapter 1, the results indicate that environmental factors are more important drivers of hunting than of bushmeat consumption, which is widespread, suggesting significant bushmeat sharing and/ or trading. While bushmeat consumption was slightly more likely in remote and more forested areas, hunting was more likely in more forested areas but also in areas closer to urban centers. These results suggest that hunting pressure is unlikely to decrease with the increasing migration to urban areas nowadays observed in the Amazon. Chapter 2 brings evidences that bushmeat consumption, and especially hunting, depend not only on the environmental context but also on the cultural context, and that the effects of economic variables depend on environmental factors. Bushmeat hunting and consumption were more likely in households with Amazonian origin, with greater reliance on subsistence activities and both increased with monetary income in less remote and/or less forested areas, but decreased with monetary income in more remote and/or more forested areas. This result suggests that the success of economic interventions aiming at both poverty alleviation and biodiversity conservation depend on the environmental context, and is more likely in more forested and remote areas. The results of Chapter 3 indicate that the amount of consumed bushmeat positively influences the perception of forest instrumental value, while forest cover in the surroundings positively influences the perception of forest intrinsic value. These results suggest that, beyond strategies that aim at human well-being through economic incentives, there is opportunity for initiatives that consider other aspects of well-being associated with services provided by forests - whether resources such as bushmeat or cultural and aesthetic benefits. At the same time, the results suggest the potential for a dangerous reinforcing cycle of forest depreciation, in which deforestation erodes perceptions of forest values, which may in turn facilitate further deforestation, indicating the urgent need to invest in conservation initiatives in more altered landscapes