The Charter grants to everyone, in s.2(a), the “fundamental …freedom of conscience and religion.” Yet the interaction between the two operative terms, “religion” and “conscience” remains largely unexplored. What, for example, is meant by “conscience”? By conscience in contradistinction to religion? Does s. 2(a) make a distinction between the state’s respect for religion and that of conscience? Can freedom of conscience be elevated to a freestanding right? Can conduct motivated by conscience be exempted from general laws in the way that some religious conduct has? Should the state take action to ensure conscience is protected? After more than 25 years of Charter commentary and jurisprudence, these remain deep questions, only partially answered. This project considers the possibility of building a case for an independent and robust “conscience” branch of s. 2(a), which will protect a broader range of freedoms, at the same time as allowing other disputes to be cast in more neutral tones (by taking them out of religious-based language, where possible) and allowing still others more room to develop in a more analytical and principled basis (as purely “religious” disputes more commonly associated with religious norms). In my view, there is, despite some opposition, sufficient justification in history, theory and doctrine to establish a separate and independent concept of freedom of conscience. At the same time, freedom of religion will always remain relevant as an acknowledgement of the distinct communal aspects of religion. Thus, a broad approach to freedom of conscience could include individual religious claims where the religious belief is based on a matter of conscience, and those conscience-based claims that lack a communal dimension, such as the prisoner who cannot eat meat or the whistleblower who feels compelled to report a supervisor. By exploring the origins of conscience and religious freedom, the basis behind the inclusion of conscience in many human rights documents, and the need for a theory that encompasses both as equal and complementary aspects of liberty, the dissertation sets out some possible ways in which freedom of conscience could be invoked and present a potential framework for assessing constitutional freedom of conscience claims.

The Charter grants to everyone, in s.2(a), the “fundamental …freedom of conscience and religion.” Yet the interaction between the two operative terms, “religion” and “conscience” remains largely unexplored. What, for example, is meant by “conscience”? By conscience in contradistinction to religion? Does s. 2(a) make a distinction between the state’s respect for religion and that of conscience? Can freedom of conscience be elevated to a freestanding right? Can conduct motivated by conscience be exempted from general laws in the way that some religious conduct has? Should the state take action to ensure conscience is protected? After more than 25 years of Charter commentary and jurisprudence, these remain deep questions, only partially answered. This project considers the possibility of building a case for an independent and robust “conscience” branch of s. 2(a), which will protect a broader range of freedoms, at the same time as allowing other disputes to be cast in more neutral tones (by taking them out of religious-based language, where possible) and allowing still others more room to develop in a more analytical and principled basis (as purely “religious” disputes more commonly associated with religious norms). In my view, there is, despite some opposition, sufficient justification in history, theory and doctrine to establish a separate and independent concept of freedom of conscience. At the same time, freedom of religion will always remain relevant as an acknowledgement of the distinct communal aspects of religion. Thus, a broad approach to freedom of conscience could include individual religious claims where the religious belief is based on a matter of conscience, and those conscience-based claims that lack a communal dimension, such as the prisoner who cannot eat meat or the whistleblower who feels compelled to report a supervisor. By exploring the origins of conscience and religious freedom, the basis behind the inclusion of conscience in many human rights documents, and the need for a theory that encompasses both as equal and complementary aspects of liberty, the dissertation sets out some possible ways in which freedom of conscience could be invoked and present a potential framework for assessing constitutional freedom of conscience claims.

This thesis is aimed on the social phenomenon of conscientious objection, its theoretical perception as a legal concept and application in the real world, in particular by the supranational protection of human rights in the European area. Priority concern will be given to the transposition of the general assessments to the special "habitat" of EU law. The basis of the study is built on an analysis of definitions and categories refined by the doctrine and reinforced by the roots of natural law, both of which also serve to determine the methodology and legal perception of conscientious objection. A short study of the Czech law then follows to "pump the theory in legal veins". Large part of the thesis addresses the case law adopted by the European Court of Human Rights which serves as an inspiration and authority for the Union and its Member States. Abstracting the main trends in ECtHR reasoning the thesis draws basic limits laid down by the international protection. It also concludes that the Convention (ECHR) does not preclude developing its own pro or contra- objection approach by the EU institutions. It is, however, supposed to have a great impact on the Unions' legal "technique" in the field of the freedom of thought, conscience and religion. In the context of EU law the special nature of the...

A obra de Pierre Bayle colaborou decisivamente para a formação do discurso filosófico sobre o conceito de tolerância, noção central nas sociedades modernas. Uma das principais teses defendidas por Bayle é que a liberdade de consciência e de opinião deve ser garantida aos indivíduos. A conseqüência é o estabelecimento de uma tolerância irrestrita, que deve se estender a todas as confissões religiosas e até mesmo aos ateus. Paradoxalmente, Bayle afirma a utilidade de um absolutismo político. O soberano tem o dever de elaborar as leis e o súdito tem a obrigação da obediência. Trata-se, portanto, de investigar a teoria política de Pierre Bayle, algo negligenciada pelos comentadores, e, além disso, propor que, na sua reflexão, a ideia da tolerância é motor de sua teoria política, intimamente associada à garantia daquela noção fundamental. Ao investigar a construção e a medida da tolerância em Pierre Bayle, bem como suas implicações especialmente para a política e para o direito, a intenção é mostrar que a obra bayliana contém uma teoria política que não está sistematizada, mas, como quase todos os grandes temas dos escritos de Bayle, disseminada por vários textos. É uma constante a expressão de certas teses de várias formas, a utilização de várias vozes para compor um argumento. A metáfora da tolerância como polifonia, utilizada no Comentário filosófico, pode ser iluminadora e mesmo uma chave para a compreensão de seu pensamento. Apesar da obra de Bayle situar-se em um horizonte clássico, e inserir-se em debates político-teológicos específicos, não se pretende examinar a sua obra como peça de circunstância ou como curiosidade histórica; antes, trata-se de analisar as teses e argumentos em defesa liberdade de consciência, relacioná-las com a sua noção de poder político e, por conseguinte, mostrar a contribuição e importância daquele autor para a história do pensamento político e jurídico, o que permitirá revelar a sua atualidade. / Pierre Bayle\'s work contributed decisively to the development of philosophical discourse concerning the concept of tolerance, a central notion in modern societies. One of Bayles main theses is that freedom of conscience and opinion should be guaranteed to individuals. The consequence is an unrestricted tolerance, which should extend to all faiths and even atheists. Paradoxically, Bayle argues for the utility of political absolutism. The ruler has the duty to establish laws, and the subject the obligation to obey. The aim of this work, therefore, is to investigate the political theory of Pierre Bayle, which has been largely overlooked by commentators. It will also be shown that in its reflection, the idea of tolerance is the driving force behind his political theory, which is closely bound up with the guarantee of this fundamental notion. In examining the theory construction and extent of tolerance in Pierre Bayle, and in particular its implications for politcs and law, I aim to show that his work contains a political theory that is not systematic, but, like almost all the major themes in his writings, is spread across several texts. The use of \"many voices\" to compose an argument is a constant in Bayles writings. The metaphor of tolerance as polyphony that appears in the Commentaire philosophique, can be illuminating and may even hold the key to understanding his thought. Although Bayles writings are located in a classic horizon and engage in specific political-theological debates, my purpose is not to examine his work as a work of circumstance, much less a historical curiosity, but rather to examine his theses and arguments for liberty of conscience and to relate them to the notion of political power. The result will be to demonstrate Bayles important contribution to the history of political and legal thought, which will underscore its continuing relevance.

The right to freedom of conscience is protected by international conventions and declarations of human rights that have been ratified by Sweden. Nationally, the issue of health professionals’ right to freedom of conscience in the abortion care is not resolved by public inquiry. This has led to that Sweden has been notified to the European Committee of Social Rights on the grounds that the country is considered to be violating the Council of  Europe Resolution 1763 and that the proper question to be determined by regulations of the interests that are balanced, based on their legal value in relation to each other. Freedoms, rights and obligations conflict with each other. In Norway the health professionals are legally entitled to abstain from performing and assisting abortion, which the employer is obliged to consider in organizing its activities. In light of the countries different regulations but similar legal traditions, the study includes an empirical comparison of health care employees experiences of conscience in the context of the abortion care. How the Swedish law relates to the legal ruling and normative rules of conscience and whether a right to conscientious objection can be derived from case law, is examined in the study. The legal investigation shows that Sweden does not recognize and guarantee freedom of conscience in the abortion care. The fact that career choices are based on voluntariness speaks in the essay against a right to conscientious objection. This is proved by the ECHR and the European Commission's general view that the manifestations attributable to belief or religion can not be considered a subject to discrimination, if the situation includes possible obstacles to religious practice can be traced to volunteerism. The essays empirical comparison is displaying what the complexity of freedom of conscience means in abortion activities organized by different legal systems. The informantsworking inSwedenfear thataconscience clauseshalllimit women’s rightto abortionandthat health professionalsshould not havean equivalentapproach tothe patients.Furthermore they fearedproblemsrelated toorganization andwork environment.The informantsworking in Norwayhave experiencedproblemsthrough conflictsbetween health professionalsrelated toreservationright. / Rätten till samvetsfrihet skyddas av internationella konventioner och deklarationer om mänskliga rättigheter som Sverige har ratificerat. Nationellt har frågan om vårdpersonals rätt till samvetsfrihet inom abortvård dock inte bemötts genom offentlig utredning. Detta har föranlett att Sverige anmälts till Europeiska kommittén för sociala rättigheter på grund av att landet betraktas bryta mot Europarådets resolution 1763 samt att rättsfrågan får bedömas utifrån reglering av de intressen som avvägs, utifrån bestämmelsernas rättsliga värde i förhållande till varandra. Friheter, rättigheter och skyldigheter står emot varandra. I Norge ges vårdpersonal lagenlig rätt att reservera sig från att utföra och assistera abortingrepp, vilket arbetsgivaren är skyldig att beakta vid organisering av verksamheten. Mot bakgrund av ländernas skilda reglering men liknande rättstraditioner görs en empirisk komparation av arbetstagares upplevelser av samvetsfrihet inom ramen för abortvård. Vidare bemöts hur svensk rätt förhåller sig till rättsligt styrande och normerande bestämmelser av samvetsfrihet och huruvida en rätt till samvetsvägran kan härledas ur rättspraxis. Av rättsutredningen framgår att Sverige inte erkänner och garanterar samvetsfrihet inom abortvård. Att yrkesval bygger på frivillighet bemöts i uppsatsen emotsäga en rätt till samvetsvägran. Detta styrkes av Europadomstolens och Europeiska kommissionens generella åsikt om att manifestation hänförlig till övertygelse eller religion inte kan anses vara föremål för diskriminering om situationen som inkluderar möjliga hinder för religionsutövning kan härledas till frivillighet. Uppsatsens empiriska komparation visar på den komplexitet som samvetsfrihet innebär inom abortverksamheter styrda av skilda rättsordningar. Informanterna som arbetar i Sverige befarar att en samvetsklausul ska inskränka kvinnors rätt till abort och att vårdpersonalen inte ska ha ett likvärdigt förhållningssätt till patienterna. Vidare befaras problematik hänförlig till organisering och arbetsmiljö. Informanterna som arbetar i Norge har upplevt problematik genom konflikter mellan vårdpersonal hänförlig till reservationsrätten.

A obra de Pierre Bayle colaborou decisivamente para a formação do discurso filosófico sobre o conceito de tolerância, noção central nas sociedades modernas. Uma das principais teses defendidas por Bayle é que a liberdade de consciência e de opinião deve ser garantida aos indivíduos. A conseqüência é o estabelecimento de uma tolerância irrestrita, que deve se estender a todas as confissões religiosas e até mesmo aos ateus. Paradoxalmente, Bayle afirma a utilidade de um absolutismo político. O soberano tem o dever de elaborar as leis e o súdito tem a obrigação da obediência. Trata-se, portanto, de investigar a teoria política de Pierre Bayle, algo negligenciada pelos comentadores, e, além disso, propor que, na sua reflexão, a ideia da tolerância é motor de sua teoria política, intimamente associada à garantia daquela noção fundamental. Ao investigar a construção e a medida da tolerância em Pierre Bayle, bem como suas implicações especialmente para a política e para o direito, a intenção é mostrar que a obra bayliana contém uma teoria política que não está sistematizada, mas, como quase todos os grandes temas dos escritos de Bayle, disseminada por vários textos. É uma constante a expressão de certas teses de várias formas, a utilização de várias vozes para compor um argumento. A metáfora da tolerância como polifonia, utilizada no Comentário filosófico, pode ser iluminadora e mesmo uma chave para a compreensão de seu pensamento. Apesar da obra de Bayle situar-se em um horizonte clássico, e inserir-se em debates político-teológicos específicos, não se pretende examinar a sua obra como peça de circunstância ou como curiosidade histórica; antes, trata-se de analisar as teses e argumentos em defesa liberdade de consciência, relacioná-las com a sua noção de poder político e, por conseguinte, mostrar a contribuição e importância daquele autor para a história do pensamento político e jurídico, o que permitirá revelar a sua atualidade. / Pierre Bayle\'s work contributed decisively to the development of philosophical discourse concerning the concept of tolerance, a central notion in modern societies. One of Bayles main theses is that freedom of conscience and opinion should be guaranteed to individuals. The consequence is an unrestricted tolerance, which should extend to all faiths and even atheists. Paradoxically, Bayle argues for the utility of political absolutism. The ruler has the duty to establish laws, and the subject the obligation to obey. The aim of this work, therefore, is to investigate the political theory of Pierre Bayle, which has been largely overlooked by commentators. It will also be shown that in its reflection, the idea of tolerance is the driving force behind his political theory, which is closely bound up with the guarantee of this fundamental notion. In examining the theory construction and extent of tolerance in Pierre Bayle, and in particular its implications for politcs and law, I aim to show that his work contains a political theory that is not systematic, but, like almost all the major themes in his writings, is spread across several texts. The use of \"many voices\" to compose an argument is a constant in Bayles writings. The metaphor of tolerance as polyphony that appears in the Commentaire philosophique, can be illuminating and may even hold the key to understanding his thought. Although Bayles writings are located in a classic horizon and engage in specific political-theological debates, my purpose is not to examine his work as a work of circumstance, much less a historical curiosity, but rather to examine his theses and arguments for liberty of conscience and to relate them to the notion of political power. The result will be to demonstrate Bayles important contribution to the history of political and legal thought, which will underscore its continuing relevance.

Submitted by Marlene Aparecida de Souza Cardozo (mcardozo@pucsp.br) on 2016-08-27T13:49:36Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Tiago Cesar Santos.pdf: 1562598 bytes, checksum: e7f5a2a36a8399d8b7b89b6fc8f78523 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-27T13:49:36Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Tiago Cesar Santos.pdf: 1562598 bytes, checksum: e7f5a2a36a8399d8b7b89b6fc8f78523 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-06-09 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo / This research aims to deepen the understanding of freedom of conscience in the thinking of Ellen G. White, focusing especially on the reflections contained in one of his works, The Great Controversy. Therefore this research describes the social, historical and religious lived by the author pointing out the main factors that influenced his life. Then we seek to understand what the relationship of her writings to the Bible, analyzing its hermeneutics. In the final part there is a description of the history of the work's composition, followed by an analysis of it, seeking to assess the impact that your thoughts have brought their time and still reflect today. Although Ellen G. White is not a theoretical renowned and considering its limitations and its little academic training their reflections produced a religious ethos in the name of which he was co-founder of the Seventh-day Adventists, who encouraged them to be very active in the defense these principles. Through this research it was found that continued operation is the result of a vision that integrates the theme of freedom of conscience not only a historical dimension, but also eschatological / Esta pesquisa tem como objetivo aprofundar a compreensão da Liberdade de consciência no pensamento de Ellen G White, focando especialmente nas reflexões contidas em uma de suas obras, O Grande Conflito. Para tanto esta pesquisa descreve o contexto social, histórico e religioso vivido pela autora apontando os principais fatores que influenciaram sua vida. Em seguida procura-se compreender qual a relação de seus escritos com a Bíblia, analisando sua hermenêutica. Na parte final há uma descrição do histórico da composição da obra, seguida de uma análise da mesma, buscando avaliar o impacto que suas reflexões trouxeram para o seu tempo e que ainda refletem em nossos dias. Embora Ellen G White não seja uma teórica de renome e considerando suas limitações e seu pouco preparo acadêmico suas reflexões produziram um ethos religioso na denominação da qual foi co-fundadora, os Adventistas do Sétimo Dia, que estimulou-os a serem bem atuantes na defesa desses princípios. Por meio dessa pesquisa constatou-se que essa continua atuação é fruto de uma visão que integra a temática da liberdade de consciência não apenas a uma dimensão histórica, mas também escatológica

Based on an analysis of the Swedish laws in the field of healthcare, the purpose of this essay in jurisprudence is to examine whether Sweden has a need to implement the new EU-resolution on abortion. The study is based upon legal sources such as official government reports (SOU) as well as words of an Act. The subject also deals with ethical standards and more community-oriented material, and texts from both these areas are also included. The Swedish laws in health care are extensive, but still put the patient first. Care givers are able to delegate their responsibility if it means good health care which is also a key word in the Swedish health care. This means that the current laws are covering large areas of care and, as with many other laws in the country; it is up to each individual to interpret them. / Utifrån en analys av de svenska lagarna inom området vård är syftet med denna uppsats i rättsvetenskap är att undersöka om Sverige har ett behov av att implementera den nya EU-resolutionen angående abort. Studien är uppbyggd på såväl lagtext som statliga offentliga utredningar men då ämnet även tar upp etiska normer och även är mer samhällsinriktad har material inom båda dessa områden också medtagits. De svenska lagarna inom vården är omfattande men sätter ändå patienten främst. Vårgivare har möjlighet att delegera sitt ansvar om det innebär god vård vilket också är ett ledord inom den svenska vården. Detta innebär att dagens lagar täcker stora områdena inom vården och som med många andra lagar i landet är det upp till var och en att tolka dem.

This work considers the legal impediments to farming in an urban environment with a particular focus on the municipal bylaws that prohibit the keeping of hens in Saskatoon. The jurisdictional competency of Saskatoon to prohibit the keeping of urban hens is challenged under both municipal law and constitutional law, and more broadly, under the general premise that liberty interests should often prevail where a bylaw is arbitrary, misinformed, and restricts the pursuit of truth and human flourishing. Saskatoon’s urban hen prohibition is argued to be premised more on a form of moral reasoning that unnecessarily distinguishes between rural and urban environments, and less, if at all, on empirical evidence. Urban agriculture is often undertaken to address the environmental and social shortfalls of the global food system, such as the system’s connection with climate change, animal welfare issues, and challenges associated with the distribution of food. Moreover, urban agriculture is a means of protecting the rights of producers and consumers, as articulated by the food sovereignty movement. In this work, a claimant’s desire to advance food rights (including food sovereignty) through the keeping of urban hens is argued to engage the guarantee to freedom of expression and freedom of conscience under Canada’s Charter of Rights and Freedoms. This work explores the possibility of protecting the manifestation of social and environmental action through the guarantee to freedom of conscience. This work develops a cursory test for determining where a claimant’s guarantee to freedom of conscience is violated, drawing on the well established protection of freedom of expression and freedom of religion.

Qu’est-ce que la liberté de conscience ? Après avoir examiné deux grandes traditions théologiques issue de la Réforme, celle de Castellion au XVIe siècle puis celle de Bayle au XVIIe siècle, qui font chacune de la liberté de conscience le nom d’un nouveau rapport entre l’individu et Dieu questionnant l’importance de l’institution religieuse, la présente thèse considère l’apport politique de cette notion qui reparaît en France lors de la Révolution française pour souligner les enjeux religieux de l’avènement de la République. Le concept de liberté de conscience permet de dévoiler cette réflexion qui s’étend tout au long du XIXe siècle sur la nature des fondements moraux de la République, réputés universels et indépendants des religions particulières, que l’institution scolaire est chargée de diffuser. À partir de quatre moments clés de la construction de l’école républicaine française au XIXe siècle (le moment Guizot sous la monarchie de Juillet ; la Révolution de 1848 avec le plan Carnot et le Manuel républicain de Renouvier ; la pensée du républicain Edgar Quinet en exil sous le Second Empire ; l’apport de Ferdinand Buisson dans l’institutionnalisation de la laïcité sous la Troisième République), nous cherchons à mettre en évidence la proximité entre cette quête d’un universel moral, qui prendra le nom de « laïcité », et une réflexion théologique menée par plusieurs républicains autour de l’institutionnalisation d’une religion respectueuse de la liberté de conscience qui accompagnerait la construction de la République française. / What is freedom of conscience? After analyzing two great theological traditions coming from the Reformation, the ones of Castellion in the 16th century and Bayle in the 17th century, which both make freedom of conscience the name of a new relationship between the individual and God, questioning the importance of the religious institution; this thesis considers the political contribution of this concept which reappears in France during the French Revolution to emphasize religious issues coming from the advent of the Republic. The idea of freedom of conscience reveals a reflection process, spreading over the 19th century, about the nature of the Republic’s moral foundations, considered as universal and independent from any particular religion, which the academic institution has to transmit.