The role of gap junctions in modulating the dynamics of axonal dysfunction in spinal cord white matter injury remains uncertain; hence, I examined the functional role and changes in expression of gap junctions following CNS injury. I hypothesized that inhibition of gap junctions improves axonal conduction during oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) in vitro. Carbenoxolone and octanol, gap junction blockers, did not change CAP amplitude in non-injured tissue, yet they significantly reduced the extent of its decline during OGD. No difference in mRNA expression of connexins 32, 36 was found. However, during OGD in the presence of gap junction blockers, expression of connexins 30, 43 was downregulated. Immunohistochemistry confirmed the presence of connexins in spinal cord slices: connexins 30, 43 overlapping with GFAP, connexin 32 with MBP and connexin 36 with CC1. Thus, blocking gap junctions enhances axonal conduction during OGD and promotes dynamic changes in connexin mRNA expression.

The role of gap junctions in modulating the dynamics of axonal dysfunction in spinal cord white matter injury remains uncertain; hence, I examined the functional role and changes in expression of gap junctions following CNS injury. I hypothesized that inhibition of gap junctions improves axonal conduction during oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) in vitro. Carbenoxolone and octanol, gap junction blockers, did not change CAP amplitude in non-injured tissue, yet they significantly reduced the extent of its decline during OGD. No difference in mRNA expression of connexins 32, 36 was found. However, during OGD in the presence of gap junction blockers, expression of connexins 30, 43 was downregulated. Immunohistochemistry confirmed the presence of connexins in spinal cord slices: connexins 30, 43 overlapping with GFAP, connexin 32 with MBP and connexin 36 with CC1. Thus, blocking gap junctions enhances axonal conduction during OGD and promotes dynamic changes in connexin mRNA expression.

Orientador: Prof. Dr. Alexandre Hiroaki Kihara / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Federal do ABC, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Neurociência e Cognição, 2017. / O estriado é a maior estrutura dos núcleos basais (NB), recebendo inputs sinápticos de várias regiões. Ele está envolvido no controle de várias funções, incluindo a motora, cognitiva e emocional, além de ser essencial para a organização e execução de ações voluntárias. Os canais de junções comunicantes (JC) são responsáveis por vários processos essenciais, incluindo a sincronização da atividade neuronal e a propagação da apoptose em doenças neurodegenerativas. Por outro lado, o papel da comunicação mediada por Cx no desenvolvimento do SNC permanece mal compreendido. Neste estudo investigamos a expressão gênica e os níveis proteicos da Cx36, Cx43 e Cx45 no estriado de ratos ao longo do desenvolvimento, na idade de E19 (embrionária) P5, P10 (pós-natais) e P60 (adulto), usando PCR em tempo real e wester blotting, respectivamente. Em seguida, examinamos os possíveis papéis dos canais de Cx36, principal Cx neuronal, no estriado em desenvolvimento. Para esta finalidade, realizamos injeções bilaterais in vivo de quinina, um bloqueador seletivo de Cx36, no estriado de ratos P0. Nossos resultados mostraram que Cx36, Cx43 e Cx45 possuem níveis de RNAm distintos durante o desenvolvimento do estriado. Nós observados que os níveis da expressão gênica da Cx36 e Cx45 foram mais altos durante o desenvolvimento quando comparados com P60 (P <0,05), enquanto Cx43 teve níveis mais baixos durante o desenvolvimento, nas idades de E19 e P5, em relação à P60 (P <0,05). O nível proteico da Cx36 em E19 foi maior quando comparado com todas as idades avaliadas e com o adulto (P <0,05). Por outro lado, nós observamos baixos níveis proteicos para Cx43 e Cx45 em todas as idades de desenvolvimento, comparado com P60 (P <0,05). Para analisar os dados de imuno-histoquímica, foram empregadas ferramentas matemáticas para avaliar em detalhe as alterações no padrão de distribuição das Cx36 e Cx45. Verificou-se que a distribuição dos diferentes tamanhos clusters/aglomerados decai semelhante a uma lei de potência, mas com diferentes valores exponenciais para P0 e P60, revelando tamanho de clusters maiores em P0 (P <0,05). Para Cx43, observou-se que esta proteína esteve distribuída uniformemente em toda a região do estriado, incluindo no interior das fibras que formam esta estrutura, padrão não observado para P60. Os resultados estatísticos mostraram uma diferença robusta comparando esses dois padrões de distribuição da proteína (P <0,0002). Nossos resultados da injeção in vivo demonstraram que os comportamentos motivados, como a alimentação, foram gravemente prejudicados nos filhotes. Além disto, a ontogênese de alguns reflexos motores foi adiada, como os comportamentos de aversão ao precipício e de geotaxia negativa. Finalmente, investigamos as conseqüências funcionais do bloqueio de Cx36 realizado no desenvolvimento pós-natal, avaliando o comportamento do rato adulto. Nossos experimentos mostraram que tanto o condicionamento do medo ao som quanto a coordenação motora foram afetados, revelando padrões distintos dos animais controle. Em conclusão a primeira parte do estudo, fomos capazes de revelar padrões de expressão distintos de Cxs em desenvolvimento do estriado, que provavelmente estão relacionados com processos fundamentais durante o desenvolvimento. Pudemos, também, determinar que a comunicação feita pelos canais Cx36 desempenham papéis essenciais no desenvolvimento do SNC, como revelado por nossas observações no estriado. / The striatum is the largest structure of the basal ganglia (BG), receiving synaptic input from multiple regions. It is involved in the control of various aspects of motor, cognitive, and emotional functions, besides being essential for the organization and execution of voluntary actions. Gap junction (GJ) channels are responsible for several essential processes, including synchronization of neuronal activity and spreading of apoptosis in neurodegenerative diseases. On the other hand, the role of Cx-mediated communication in the development of the CNS remains poorly understood. In this study we investigated gene expression and protein levels of Cx36, Cx43 and Cx45 in the striatum of rats along its developmental ages of E19 (embrionary), P5, P10 (postnatal day) and P60 (adult) using real time PCR and western blotting, respectively. We next examined the possible roles of Cx36 channels, the main neuronal Cx, in the developing striatum. To this end, we performed in vivo bilateral injections of quinine, a selective Cx36 blocker, in the striatum of P0 rats. Our results showed that Cx36, Cx43 and Cx45 have distinct mRNA expression during the development of striatum. We observed that Cx36 and Cx45 gene expression levels were higher during the development when compared to P60 (P<0.05), while Cx43 was lower in developmental ages of E19 and P5 (P<0.05) comparing to P60. Cx36 protein levels at E19 were higher when compared with all evaluated ages and to P60 (P<0.05). On the other hand, we observed lower protein levels of Cx43 and Cx45 along all development ages compared to P60 (P<0.05). For immunofluorescence, we employed mathematical analyses to evaluate in detail changes in Cx36 and Cx45 distribution of clusters size evaluation. It was found that the distribution of the clusters size decays similarly with a power law, but with different exponent values for P0 and P60, revealing larger mean clusters at P0 (P<0.05). For Cx43, we observed that this protein was uniformly distributed in the whole striatum, including inside the fibers that forms this structure, pattern not seen for P60. Statistical results showed a robust difference comparing those two patterns of protein distribution (P<0.0002). Our results from in vivo injection showed that motivated behaviors, such as feeding, were severely impaired in rat pups. Moreover, ontogenesis of some motor reflexes was delayed, as supported by cliff avoidance and negative geotaxis behavior tests. Finally, we focused on the functional consequences of Cx36 blockade performed in postnatal development by evaluating adult behavior. Our experiments showed that both tone fear conditioning and motor coordination were affected, revealing distinct from control animals. In conclusion from first part of this study, we were able to disclose distinct expression patterns of Cxs in developing striatum, which are probably related to fundamental processes during the development. We were, also, able to determine that communication provided by Cx36 channels play essential roles in the developing of the CNS, as revealed by our observations in the striatum.

The contractile state of microcirculatory vessels is a major determinant of the blood pressure of the whole systemic circulation. Continuous bi-directional communication exists between the endothelial cells (ECs) and smooth muscle cells (SMCs) that regulates calcium (Ca2+) dynamics in these cells. This study presents theoretical approaches to understand some of the important and currently unresolved microcirculatory phenomena. Agonist induced events at local sites have been shown to spread long distances in the microcirculation. We have developed a multicellular computational model by integrating detailed single EC and SMC models with gap junction and nitric oxide (NO) coupling to understand the mechanisms behind this effect. Simulations suggest that spreading vasodilation mainly occurs through Ca2+ independent passive conduction of hyperpolarization in RMAs. Model predicts a superior role for intercellular diffusion of inositol (1,4,5)-trisphosphate (IP3) than Ca2+ in modulating the spreading response. Endothelial derived signals are initiated even during vasoconstriction of stimulated SMCs by the movement of Ca2+ and/or IP3 into the EC which provide hyperpolarizing feedback to SMCs to counter the ongoing constriction. Myoendothelial projections (MPs) present in the ECs have been recently proposed to play a role in myoendothelial feedback. We have developed two models using compartmental and 2D finite element methods to examine the role of these MPs by adding a sub compartment in the EC to simulate MP with localization of intermediate conductance calcium activated potassium channels (IKCa) and IP3 receptors (IP3R). Both models predicted IP3 mediated high Ca2+ gradients in the MP after SMC stimulation with limited global spread. This Ca2+ transient generated a hyperpolarizing feedback of ~ 2-3mV. Endothelium derived hyperpolarizing factor (EDHF) is the dominant form of endothelial control of SMC constriction in the microcirculation. A number of factors have been proposed for the role of EDHF but no single pathway is agreed upon. We have examined the potential of myoendothelial gap junctions (MEGJs) and potassium (K+) accumulation as EDHF using two models (compartmental and 2D finite element). An extra compartment is added in SMC to simulate micro domains (MD) which have NaKα2 isoform sodium potassium pumps. Simulations predict that MEGJ coupling is much stronger in producing EDHF than alone K+ accumulation. On the contrary, K+ accumulation can alter other important parameters (EC Vm, IKCa current) and inhibit its own release as well as EDHF conduction via MEGJs. The models developed in this study are essential building blocks for future models and provide important insights to the current understanding of myoendothelial feedback and EDHF.

The heart works as a functional syncytium, which is realized via cell-cell coupling maintained by gap junction channels. These channels connect two adjacent cells, so that action potentials can be transferred. Each cell contributes a hexameric hemichannel (=connexon), formed by protein subuntis named connexins. These hemichannels dock to each other and form the gap junction channel. This channel works as a low ohmic resistor also allowing the passage of small molecules up to 1000 Dalton. Connexins are a protein family comprising of 21 isoforms in humans. In the heart, the main isoforms are Cx43 (the 43 kDa connexin; ubiquitous), Cx40 (mostly in atrium and specific conduction system), and Cx45 (in early developmental states, in the conduction system, and between fibroblasts and cardiomyocytes). These gap junction channels are mainly located at the polar region of the cardiomyocytes and thus contribute to the anisotropic pattern of cardiac electrical conductivity. While in the beginning the cell–cell coupling was considered to be static, similar to an anatomically defined structure, we have learned in the past decades that gap junctions are also subject to cardiac remodeling processes in cardiac disease such as atrial fibrillation, myocardial infarction, or cardiomyopathy. The underlying remodeling processes include the modulation of connexin expression by e.g., angiotensin, endothelin, or catecholamines, as well as the modulation of the localization of the gap junctions e.g., by the direction and strength of local mechanical forces. A reduction in connexin expression can result in a reduced conduction velocity. The alteration of gap junction localization has been shown to result in altered pathways of conduction and altered anisotropy. In particular, it can produce or contribute to non-uniformity of anisotropy, and thereby can pre-form an arrhythmogenic substrate. Interestingly, these remodeling processes seem to be susceptible to certain pharmacological treatment.

Gap junctions are highly-conserved communicating junctions composed of the connexin family of proteins. In addition to this channel function, gap junctions mediate adhesive contacts at extracellular domains, and are host to a variety of signalling metabolites at intracellular surfaces. In this thesis, I explore the emerging theme of the connexin interactome. Starting with a non-biased proteomic approach, I identified endogenous protein interactions with the predominant liver and oligodendrocyte connexin, connexin32 (Cx32). Here, I identified novel mitochondrial protein interactions suggesting that Cx32 might localize to mitochondrial membranes, as has been reported for cardiac Cx43. Following proteomic quantitation of WT and Cx32 KO membranes, I determined that loss of Cx32 specifically induces mitochondrial protein expression. Bioenergetic analysis of isolated mitochondria then confirmed that oxygen consumption and rates of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation were elevated in Cx32 KO mitochondria. In addition to novel intracellular connexin protein interactions, we hypothesized that connexin-mediated glial cell:cell interactions were responsible for mediating fate decisions in the complex hippocampal neurogenic niche environment. We identified that Cx32-mediated glial cell:cell interactions exert significant proliferative and fate specifying pressures on hippocampal progenitor cell types, wherein the loss of Cx32 enables improved histological and functional regeneration following excitotoxic injury. Together, this thesis identifies novel connexin-mediated signalling pathways that provide mechanistic insight into both intracellular and extracellular interactomedependent functions for Cx32, and outlines a potentially transformative avenue for brain repair.

Eine einzigartige experimentelle Beobachtung, welche die Basis für eine ganzheitliche, neurowissentschafliche Theorie für Gedächtnis darstellen könnte, sind sharp wave-ripples (SWRs). SWRs werden in lokalen Neuronennetzwerken erzeugt und sind wichtig für Gedächtniskonsolidierung; SWRs sind charakteristische Ereignisse der lokalen Feldpotentiale im Hippocampus des Säugetiers, die in Phasen von Schlaf und Ruhe vorkommen. Eine SWR besteht aus einer sharp wave, einer ≈ 100 ms langen Auslenkung des Feldpotentials, welche mit ripples, 110–250 Hz Oszillationen, überlagert ist. Jüngste Experimente bekräftigen die Theorie, dass ripples in Netzwerken inhibitorischer Interneurone (INT-INT) erzeugt werden, die aus parvalbumin-positive basket cells (PV+BCs) bestehen. PV+BCs sind untereinander über rekurrente inhibitorische Synapsen und Gap Junctions (GJs) gekoppelt. In dieser Arbeit untersuche ich die spezifische Funktion von interneuronalen Gap Junctions in ripples. Im Hauptteil dieser Arbeit demonstriere ich, dass GJs in INT-INT Netzwerken die neuronale Synchronität und die Feuerrate während ripples erhöhen, die ripple-Frequenz sich hingegen nur leicht verändert. Zusätzlich zeige ich, dass diese rippleunterstützenden Effekte nur dann auftreten, wenn die GJ-Transmission schnell genug ist (≈< 0.5 ms), was wiederum somanahe Kopplung voraussetzt (≈< 100 µm). Darüber hinaus zeige ich, dass GJs die oszillatorische Stärke der ripples erhöhen und so die minimale für ripples notwendige Netzwerkgröße verringern. Abschließend zeige ich, dass ausschließlich mit Gap Junctions gekoppelte INT-INT Netzwerke zwar mit ripple Frequenz oszillieren können, aber wahrscheinlich nicht der Erzeuger von experimentell beobachteten ripple-artigen Oszillationen sind. Zusammengenommen zeigen meine Resultate, dass schnelle Gap Junction-Kopplung von Interneuronen die Entstehung von ripples begünstigt und somit SWRs unterstützt, welche einen wichtigen Beitrag zur Bildung unserers Gedächtnisses leisten. / A unique experimental observation that opens ways for a holistic, bottom-up theory for memory generation are sharp-wave ripples (SWRs). SWRs are generated in local neuronal networks and are important for memory consolidation. SWRs are prominent features of the extracellular field potentials in the mammalian hippocampus that occur during rest and sleep; they are characterized by sharp waves, ≈ 100 ms long voltage deflections, that are accompanied by ripples, i.e., 110–250 Hz oscillations. Recent experiments support the view that ripples are clocked by recurrent networks of inhibitory interneurons (INT-INT), which are likely constituted by networks of parvalbumin-positive basket cells (PV+BCs). PV+BCs are not only recurrently coupled by inhibition but also by gap junctions (GJs). In this thesis, I investigate the specific function of interneuronal GJs in hippocampal ripples. Consequently, I simulate INT-INT networks and demonstrate that gap junctions increase the neuronal synchrony and firing rates during ripple oscillations, while the ripple frequency is only affected mildly. I further show that GJs only have these supporting effects on ripples when they are sufficiently fast (≈< 0.5 ms), which requires proximal GJ coupling (≈< 100 µm). Additionally, I find that gap junctions increase the oscillatory power of ripple oscillations and by this means reduce the minimal network size required for INT-INT networks to generate ripple oscillations. Finally, I demonstrate that exclusively GJ-coupled INT-INT networks can oscillate at ripple frequency, however, are unlikely the generator of experimentally observed ripple-like oscillations. In sum, my results show that fast interneuronal gap junction coupling promotes the emergence of ripples and hereby supports SWRs, which are important for the formation of memory.

No description available.

Da vorliegende Studien unserer Arbeitsgruppe auf eine Beteiligung von Connexinen an der oralen Plattenepithelkarzinogenese hindeuten, war es Ziel dieser Arbeit in-vivo am Hamstermodell die Expression der Connexine 26, 43 und 45 im Verlauf der Karzinogenese zu untersuchen. Die durch 9,10-Dimethyl-1,2-Benzanthrazen (DMBA) induzierten Karzinome wurden makroskopisch, histologisch, sowie auf ihren Inflammationsgrad hin untersucht, um die Effektivität des Tiermodells zu prüfen. Weiterhin erfolgte sie Genexpressionsanalyse mittels RNA-Isolation, PCR-Analyse und statistischer Auswertung. Es konnte insgesamt gezeigt werden, dass die Applikation von DMBA in Abhängigkeit von Behandlungsdauer makroskopisch, histologisch und inflammatorisch einen deutlichen karzinogenen Effekt hatte und, dass das histopathologische Grading signifikant mit der Länge der Behandlungsdauer korrelierte. Im Rahmen der Genexpressionsanalyse konnte im Verlauf der DMBA-Behandlung für Connexin 26 und 45 eine signifikante Überexpression beschrieben werden. Connexin 43 zeigte sich als nicht differentiell exprimiert. Ein Zusammenhang zwischen histologischem Grading und Genexpression war nicht nachvollziehbar.

Doctor of Philosophy / Graduate Biochemistry Group / Dolores J. Takemoto / Eukaryotic cells possess a unique way to communicate with each other by passing metabolites and small molecules through protein pores that connect adjacent cells. Although there are many types and families of protein pores, connexins comprise a unique family. Six connexin monomers assemble into a hemichannel, which is transported to the cell membrane. An opposing cell membrane containing compatible connexin hemichannels is located and connected, forming an intercellular dodecameric protein complex. This results in a protein channel that connects two separate cytoplasmic compartments to each other. This type of channel is known as a gap junction. Connexin expression and function is commonly tissue specific. Of the 21 known human connexins, less than half are currently well characterized. Three connexins are expressed in the lens, connexin 43 (Cx43), 46 (Cx46), and 50 (Cx50). Of these three, Cx46 and Cx50 both have major functions in the mature lens. Cx46 functions as a major gap junction channel, which maintains mature lens homeostasis, while Cx50 possesses growth control properties in the lens. Cx46 expression is modulated in breast and bone tumors, and during ischemia. It is hypothesized that Cx46 provides resistance to hypoxia mediated cell death by prolonging survival. In this study, Cx46 expression was detected in human Y79 retinoblastoma cells. Decreasing the expression of Cx46 in nude mice carrying Y79 xenografts slowed early stage tumor growth. Y79 cells in culture survive for over 72 hours in 1% oxygen in vitro. C46 was upregulated in cultured lens cells when grown under hypoxia. Human lens epithelial cells, rabbit N/N1003A lens cells, and Y79 cells proliferated in 1% oxygen until Cx46 expression was depleted by use of siRNA. Protection from hypoxia-induced cell death was provided by transfection with the C-terminus of Cx46. We further determined that the promoter activity of Cx46 was increased in 1% oxygen. These results indicate that Cx46 would increase in response to hypoxia and suggest a role for Cx46 in protection from hypoxia. The studies demonstrate a novel function for Cx46 in cell survival during hypoxia.