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Gadolinium (Gd) is commonly used in contrast agents (GBCAs) to improve magnetic resonance imaging. GBCAs improve tumor imaging and were thought to be stable and clear from the body through excretion after administration. However, they have been found to dissociate and remain in organs such as the liver and kidneys. In these studies, a non-invasive Cd-109 based K x-ray fluorescence (K-XRF) “Clover-Leaf” detection system to study liver and kidney Gd levels was investigated to improve the minimum detection limit (MDL). Two Cd-109 sources, one with a relatively low activity of 0.78 GBq and a second high activity source of 5 GBq irradiated a human torso water phantom containing liver and kidney phantoms with Gd concentrations ranging from 0-100 ppm. The MDL was calculated from two different time measurements 5 hours (weak source) and 30 minutes (strong source). In addition, liver and kidney phantom measurements with overlaying tissue thicknesses from 6-26 mm were investigated. At present, the K-XRF detection system is able to detect the Gd in each phantom with both sources. The MDL for the liver and kidney with the weaker source is 2.95 ppm and 3.60 ppm, respectively. The MDL for the stronger source is 3.61 ppm and 3.87 ppm, respectively. The overlaying tissue thickness MDLs decreased exponentially since the thickness increased which increases the scattering and attenuation. Simulations with MCNP successfully modelled the experiments. MCNP simulations of the kidney with varying Gd concentrations in the cortex and medulla suggest that the XRF measurement is not sensitive to the Gd distribution in the phantom. To conclude, this detection system can measure Gd in liver and kidney phantoms and has low MDLs. Future work should focus on varying the detection capabilities, measuring the effects to the organs at risk, possible clinical trials, and improving the MCNP model and peak extraction. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

Trimetallic nitride endohedral fullerenes (TNT-EMF) have been recognized for their multifunctional capabilities in biomedical applications. Functionalized gadolinium-loaded fullerenes attracted much attention as a potential new nanoplatform for next-generation magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents, given their inherent higher 1H relaxivity than most commercial contrast agents. The fullerene cage is an extraordinarily stable species which makes it extremely unlikely to break and release the toxic Gd metal ions into the bioenvironment. In addition, radiolabeled metals could be encapsulated in this robust carbon cage to deliver therapeutic irradiation. In this dissertation, we aim to develop a series of functionalized TNT-EMFs for MRI detection of various pathological conditions, such as brain cancer, chronic osteomyelitis, and gastrointestinal (GI) tract. As a general introduction, Chapter 1 briefly introduces recent progress in developing metallofullerenes for next-generation biomedical applications. Of special interest are MRI contrast agents. Other potential biomedical applications, toxicity, stability and biodistribution of metallofullerenes are also discussed. Finally, the challenges and future outlook of using fullerene in biomedical and diagnosis applications are summarized at the end of this chapter. The large carbon surface area is ideally suited for multiple exo-functionalization approaches to modify the hydrophobic fullerene cage for a more hydrophilic bio-environment. Additionally, peptides and other agents are readily covalently attached to this nanoprobe for targeting applications. Chapter 2 presents the functionalized metallofullerenes conjugated with interleukin-13 peptide exhibits enhanced targeting of U-251 glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) cell lines and can be effectively delivered intravenously in an orthotopic GBM mouse model. Chapter 3 shows, with the specific targeting moiety, the functionalized metallofullerenes can be applied as a non-invasive imaging approach to detect and differentiate chronic post-traumatic osteomyelitis from aseptic inflammation. Fullerene is a powerful antioxidant due to delocalization of the π-electrons over the carbon cage, which can readily react with free radicals and subsequently delivers a cascade of downstream possessions in numerous biomedical applications. Chapter 4 investigates the antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties of functionalized Gd3N@C80. This nanoplatform would hold great promise as a novel class of theranostic agent in combating oxidative stress and resolving inflammation, given their inherent MRI applications. In chapter 5, Gd3N@C80 is modified with polyethylene glycol (PEG) for working as MRI contrast agents for GI tract. The high molecular weight can prevent any appreciable absorption through the skin or mucosal tissue, and offer considerable advantages for localized agents in the GI tract. Besides the excellent contrast capability, the PEGylated-Gd3N@C80 exhibits outstanding radical scavenging ability, which can potentially eliminate the reactive oxygen species in GI tract. The biodistribution result suggests this nanoplatform can be worked as the potential contrast agent for GI tract at least for 6 hours. A novel amphiphilic Gd3N@C80 derivative is discussed in Chapter 6. It has been noticed for a long time the functionalization Gd3N@C80 contrast agents have higher relaxivity at lower concentrations. The explanation for the concentration dependency is not fully understood. In this work, the amphiphilic Gd3N@C80 derivative is used as the model to investigate the relationship between the relaxivity and concentration of the Gd-based fullerenes. Click chemistry has been extensively used in functionalization due to the high efficiency and technical simplicity of the reaction. Appendix A describes a new type of Sc3N@C80 derivative conducted by employing the click reaction. The structure of Sc3N@C80-alkynyl and Sc3N@C80- alkynyl-benzyl azide are characterized by NMR, MALDI-TOF, UV-Vis, and HPLC. The high yield of the click reaction can provide access to various derivatives which have great potential for application in medical and materials science. The functionalization and characterizations of Ho3N@C80 derivatives are reported in Appendix B. The contrast ability of Ho3N@C80 is directly compared with Gd3N@C80. The Ho-based fullerenes can be performed as the radiotherapeutic agents; the leaching study is performed to test the stability of carbon cage after irradiation. Appendix C briefly shows a new method to develop Gd3N@C80 based targeting platform, which can be used as the probe for chronic post-traumatic osteomyelitis. / PHD / Since the discovery of fullerene in 1985, fullerenes and metallofullerene in medical and diagnostics applications is rapidly increasing. Functionalized gadolinium-loaded fullerenes attracted much attention as a potential new nanoplatform for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents, given their inherent better contrast ability than most commercial contrast agents. The fullerene cage is an extraordinarily stable species which makes it extremely unlikely to break and release the toxic metal ions into the bioenvironment. In this dissertation, we report the development of a series of functionalized fullerenes for MRI detection of various pathological conditions, such as brain cancer and chronic osteomyelitis, and working as the agent for gastrointestinal (GI) tract. As a general introduction, Chapter 1 briefly introduces recent progress in developing fullerenes for next-generation biomedical applications. Of special interest are MRI contrast agents. Other potential biomedical applications, toxicity, stability and biodistribution of fullerenes are also discussed. Finally, the challenges and future outlook of using fullerene in biomedical and diagnosis applications are summarized at the end of this chapter. The large carbon surface area is ideally suited for multiple chemical reactions approaches to make the fullerene soluble in bio-environment. Additionally, peptides and other agents are readily attached to this nanoprobe for targeting applications. Chapter 2 presents the functionalized fullerenes conjugated with interleukin-13 peptide exhibits enhanced targeting of glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) cell lines and can be delivered efficiently intravenously in a GBM mouse model. Chapter 3 shows, with the specific targeting moiety, the functionalized fullerenes can be applied as a non-invasive imaging approach to detect and differentiate chronic post-traumatic osteomyelitis from aseptic inflammation. The nature of fullerene aromaticity makes it a powerful antioxidant. Fullerene can readily react with free radicals and subsequently delivers a cascade of downstream possessions in numerous biomedical applications.Chapter 4 investigates the antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties of functionalized Gd₃N@C₈₀. This nanoplatform would hold great promise as a novel class of theranostic agent in combating oxidative stress and resolving inflammation, given their inherent MRI applications. In chapter 5, Gd₃N@C₈₀ is modified with polymer polyethylene glycol (PEG) for working as MRI contrast agents for GI tract. The high molecular weight can prevent any appreciable absorption through the skin or mucosal tissue, and offer considerable advantages for localized agents in the GI tract. Besides the excellent contrast capability, the PEGylated-Gd₃N@C₈₀ exhibits outstanding radical scavenging ability, which can potentially eliminate the reactive oxygen species in GI tract. The biodistribution result suggests this nanoplatform can be worked as the potential contrast agent for GI tract at least for 6 hours. A novel amphiphilic Gd₃N@C₈₀ derivative is discussed in Chapter 6. It has been noticed for a long time the functionalization Gd₃N@C₈₀ contrast agents have better contrast ability at lower concentrations. The explanation for the concentration dependency is not fully understood. In this work, the amphiphilic Gd₃N@C₈₀ derivative is used as the model to investigate the relationship between the contrast ability and concentration of the Gd-based fullerenes. Click chemistry has been extensively used in functionalization due to the high efficiency and technical simplicity of the reaction. Appendix A describes a new type of Sc₃N@C₈₀ derivative conducted by employing the click reaction. The high yield of the click reaction can provide access to various derivatives. It makes this kind of fullerene has excellent potential for application in medical and materials science. The functionalization and characterizations of Ho₃N@C₈₀ derivatives are reported in Appendix B. The contrast ability of Ho₃N@C₈₀ is directly compared with Gd₃N@C₈₀. The Ho-based fullerenes can be performed as the radiotherapeutic agents; the leaching study is conducted to test the stability of carbon cage after irradiation. Appendix C briefly shows a new method to develop Gd₃N@C₈₀ based targeting platform, which can be used as the probe for chronic post-traumatic osteomyelitis.

Yes / The gadolinium-doped iron oxide nanoparticles (GdIONP) with greater specific power adsorption rate (SAR) than Fe3O4 was developed and its potential application in tumour therapy and particle tracking were demonstrated in transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate C1 (TRAMP-C1) tumours. The GdIONPs accumulated in tumour region during the treatment could be clearly tracked and quantified by T2-weighted MR imaging. The therapeutic effects of GdIONP-mediated hyperthermia alone or in combination with radiotherapy (RT) were also evaluated. A significant increase in the tumour growth time was observed following the treatment of thermotherapy (TT) only group (2.5 days), radiation therapy only group (4.5 days), and the combined radio-thermotherapy group (10 days). Immunohistochemical staining revealed a reduced hypoxia region with vascular disruption and extensive tumour necrosis following the combined radio-thermotherapy. These results indicate that GdIONP-mediated hyperthermia can improve the efficacy of RT by its dual functions in high temperature (temperature greater than 45 °C)-mediated thermal ablation and mild-temperature hyperthermia (MTH) (temperature between 39 and 42 °C)-mediated reoxygenation.

No / Contrast agents are used to enhance imaging examinations, however in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) there is an association with nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF). The risk is small, but elevated in patients with impaired renal function and screening of patients is advised prior to administration. This study examines adherence of UK hospitals to guidance on the use of gadolinium based contrast agents (GBCA) in MRI. This was a prospective study utilising an electronic survey. The sample comprised NHS Trusts in the UK (n = 174). An invitation was sent to all MRI lead radiographers including a link to the survey. 17.6% indicated they had no written protocol for the GBCA administration within radiology. 41.2% check blood test results for all patients undergoing a contrast MRI, whereas 45.6% only check those patients with known renal dysfunction or are high-risk. Comorbidities which categorised patients as high-risk included diabetes, cardiac or vascular disease and age, however the cut off varied from 65 to 75 years old. Six sites indicated point-of-care (POC) creatinine testing would be carried out where bloods were unavailable, a further 12 had considered POC testing and dismissed it as an adjunct to the patient pathway, the most commonly cited reason being the cost. Within the UK there is no consistent approach to renal function assessment prior to GBCA administration despite international guidance. POC testing may have a role to play, but a lack of evaluation in radiology has led to concerns that it may constrain capacity and increase costs.

La synthèse de nanoparticules de fluorure d’yttrium par microémulsion inverse produit des monocristaux de taille bien définie, monodisperses et de forme octaédrique. Le principal avantage du fluorure d’yttrium est qu’il peut être dopé à l’aide de lanthanides, sans aucun inconvénient sur la structure, afin de conférer aux particules les propriétés intrinsèques au dopant. L’ajout d’une coquille de fluorure de lanthanide est également envisageable. D’autre part, la confection de nanoparticules pour l’imagerie médicale permet d’augmenter la sensibilité des sondes puisqu’elles contiennent plus d’ions actifs que leurs équivalents organiques qui, souvent, n’en contiennent qu’un. Dans le cadre de ce projet, le lanthanide utilisé comme dopant ou pour la confection d’une coquille est le gadolinium. Ainsi, les propriétés relaxométriques de différents types de nanoparticules, synthétisées par la méthode à une simple microémulsion inverse, sont mesurées et comparées. L’addition d’une coquille de silice est réalisée pour augmenter la stabilité des suspensions colloïdales aqueuses. Mots clés : Coquille de silice, Fluorure de gadolinium, Fluorure d’yttrium, Micelles, Microémulsions inverses, Nanoparticules. / The synthesis of yttrium fluoride nanoparticles within reverse microemulsions produces monodisperse population of single crystals of well-defined size and with an octahedral shape. The main advantage of yttrium fluoride is that it can be doped, without loss of crystal structure, in order to confer dopant’s intrinsic properties. Adding a shell of lanthanide fluoride is also possible. Furthermore, the synthesis of nanoparticles for the medical imaging allows to increase the sensor’s sensibility since they contain more active ions then their organic equivalents which, often, contain only one. As part of this project, the lanthanide used as a dopant or to make a shell is gadolinium. Thus, relaxometric properties of different types of nanoparticles, synthetized by the single reverse microemulsion method, are measured and compared. Addition of a silica shell is made in order to increase the colloidal stability of aqueous suspension. Keywords: Gadolinium fluoride, Micelles, Nanoparticles, Reversed microemulsion, Silica shell, Yttrium fluorire.

Tableau d’honneur de la Faculté des études supérieures et postdoctorales, 2012-2013. / L'objectif principal de ce projet de doctorat est de développer et de caractériser un agent de contraste pour la détection in vivo, en imagerie par résonance magnétique (IRM) pondérée en T₁; d'un groupe de cellules préalablement marquées in vitro. Le but de ce marquage est de visualiser et de suivre le développement de cellules après leur implantation dans un modèle préclinique et ce, en contraste "positif". Pour ce faire, la stratégie choisie pour cette thèse est de synthétiser des nanoparticules ultrafines (< 3 nm) d'oxyde de gadolinium recouvertes d'un ligand biocompatible. La première étape de ce projet consistait, après optimisation d'une synthèse de nanoparticules de Gd₂O₃ recouvertes de diéthylène glycol, à mener une expérience d'ingestion cellulaire avec des cellules de glioblastome multiforme de souris (GL-261). Le rehaussement du signal des cellules en IRM a été démontré après l'ingestion, tout comme la possibilité de les détecter après une implantation sur la membrane chorioallantoïque d'un oeuf de poulet fertilisé. Des études MET ont révélé que les particules s'accumulent et s'agrègent dans les endosomes cellulaires pendant l'ingestion. La seconde étape de la thèse a donc consisté à analyser in vitro, en milieu aqueux, l'impact de cette agrégation sur les propriétés relaxométriques des particules. Pour ce faire, des analyses MET, DLS et avec des relaxomètres à champs magnétiques variables ont été menées. Ces études ont démontré que l'agrégation influence les propriétés relaxométriques des suspensions de Gd₂O₃, surtout à champs magnétiques élevés (> 7 T, ou 300 MHz). Finalement, une synthèse alternative en une étape, recouvrant les nanoparticules de polyethylene glycol (PEG), a été développée afin de limiter l'agrégation. Les propriétés physicochimiques des particules de PEG-Gd₂O₃ (1,3 nm) ont été étudiées par MET, DLS, DRX, EDS, FTIR et ATG. Les relaxivités longitudinale et transverse mesurées à 1.41 T (60 MHz, 37°C, pH 5) ont été de 14,2 et 17,2 mM⁻¹s⁻¹. La performance de ce produit de contraste a été testée en injectant in vivo des cellules de glioblastome multiforme (F98) préalablement marquées. Les cellules implantées ont été visualisées en IRM et ont toutes développé des tumeurs cérébrales malignes en quelques jours. En conclusion, les nanoparticules développées auront permis de détecter efficacement des cellules implantées in vivo.

Le glioblastome constitue la tumeur primitive maligne la plus fréquente et la plus agressive du système nerveux central, caractérisée par un pronostic sombre. L’infusion locale dans le parenchyme cérébral du cisplatine a présenté des résultats encourageants sur des modèles précliniques. La nanovectorisation permet de concentrer l’efficacité thérapeutique d’agents anticancéreux à leur cible. Leur fonctionnalisation par des unités d’imagerie offre la possibilité de suivre de façon non invasive par imagerie par résonance magnétique (IRM) leur biodistribution au sein du tissu lésé. Dans cette optique, un copolymère tribloc amphiphile biocompatible a été synthétisé par polymérisations par ouverture de cycle successives à partir d’un oxyde de polyéthylène (PEO). Après micellisation dans l’eau, des complexes de gadolinium ont été greffés sur la couronne de PEO et les fonctions carboxylates situées en périphérie du coeur micellaire se sont réticulées sur le cisplatine, conduisant à la formation d’une prodrogue macromoléculaire de taille nanométrique stable dans le temps. Le potentiel de ces nanoparticules bifonctionnelles comme agents de contraste IRM a été exploré à haut champ magnétique. Une telle vectorisation du cisplatine a en outre permis d’augmenter de façon significative l’accumulation du platine dans deux lignées humaines de glioblastome ainsi que la formation d’adduits à l’ADN par rapport à la drogue libre. L’implication de mécanismes biologiques sous-jacents à cette étude pose la question de l’existence d’autres cibles alternatives critiques des dérivés du platine, remettant en cause le paradigme établi depuis un demi-siècle définissant l’ADN comme la cible ultime du cisplatine. / Glioblastoma is the most frequent and aggressive primary malignant tumor of the central nervous system with a gloomy prognosis. Local infusion of cisplatin within the brain parenchyma exhibited promising results in preclinical models. Nanovectorization of anticancer agents even promotes the concentration of their therapeutic efficiency on their target. Anchorage ofimaging moieties on such smart drug delivery systems further enables the non-invasive monitoring of their biodistribution within the damaged tissue by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). From this perspective, a biocompatible amphiphilic triblock copolymer was synthesized by successive ring-opening polymerizations from a polyethylene oxide (PEO). After micellization in water, gadolinium complexes were grafted to the PEO corona and the carboxylate functions located at the surface of the micelle’s core were able to cross-link with cisplatin. A stable nano-sized macromolecular prodrug was therefore recovered. Relaxomety measurements at a high magnetic field confirmed the intrinsic potential of these hybrid nanoparticles as alternative MRI contrast agents. Besides, cisplatin vectorization allowed for substantially increasing the accumulation of platinum compounds in two human glioblastoma cell lines as well as the subsequent formation of DNA adducts in comparison with the free drug. Biological mechanisms below this study raise the question whether critical alternative targets of platinum derivatives might exist, thus undermining the old-established paradigm that defines DNA as the ultimate target of cisplatin.

No description available.

La fibrose systémique néphrogénique (FSN) est une maladie rare et relativement récente, observée uniquement chez des patients souffrant d'insuffisance rénale sévère ou terminale. Elle est liée à l'administration d'une certaine catégorie de complexes de gadolinium (CG), les CGs thermodynamiquement moins stables, utilisés comme produits de contraste pour l'imagerie par résonance magnétique. L'hypothèse mécanistique la plus couramment citée concerne les effets profibrosants du Gd3+ " libre " après dissociation in vivo des CGs les moins stables mais il n'en existe pas de démonstration formelle. La physiopathologie de cette maladie reste mal connue, notamment par manque de modèles précliniques pertinents. Les travaux de cette thèse répondent donc à la nécessité d'approfondir nos connaissances concernant les relations entre les propriétés physicochimiques des CGs (structure, stabilité) et le risque de toxicité chronique, afin de mieux comprendre leur rôle dans le mécanisme de la FSN. Nous avons mis aux points plusieurs modèles de FSN chez le Rat. Nous avons aussi comparé les effets de toutes les catégories structurales des CGs sur ces modèles. Une toxicité systémique importante et la survenue de lésions cutanées macroscopiques et d'une fibrose du derme sont notées après administration de gadodiamide (un CG linéaire et ionique de faible stabilité), ce qui est cohérent avec le fait que la grande majorité des cas de FSN sont associés à cet agent. Nous avons aussi montré que cette toxicité dépend du degré d'insuffisance rénale et que l'hyperphosphatémie sensibilise les animaux aux effets profibrosants du gadodiamide. Nos données suggèrent donc que ces facteurs associés sont des facteurs de risque de la FSN. Nous avons observé la dissociation progressive in vivo de deux CGs linéaires présentant une faible stabilité, le gadodiamide et l'acide gadopentétique, après administration chez le Rat insuffisant rénal, avec libération de Gd3+ sous forme libre et soluble. Les CGs macrocycliques sont restés stables. Nous avons confirmé cette stabilité sur du sérum de Rat et du sérum humain alors que le gadodiamide se dissocie in vitro. Nos données suggèrent aussi une interaction entre l'ion Gd3+ dissocié à partir du gadodiamide et les protéines sériques. Cette libération de Gd3+ est accélérée en présence d'une forte concentration de phosphate. Globalement, nos résultats suggèrent ainsi un rôle causal du Gd3+ libre dans les lésions cutanées observées chez les animaux insuffisants rénaux. Enfin, nous avons observé l'implication de la voie de signalisation canonique de TGFβ, le marqueur clé de la fibrose, uniquement chez des rats ayant reçu le gadodiamide et dont l'insuffisance rénale est modérée. Nos travaux sont donc en faveur de l'hypothèse mécanistique d'une dissociation des CGs peu stables.