Mourella caerulea, popularmente conhecida como mirim-de-chão ou bieira, e Plebeia nigriceps, comumente chamada mirim nigriceps, são meliponíneos ocorrentes no sul do Brasil, polinizadores de plantas nativas e cultivadas. M. caerulea está principalmente relacionada ao bioma Pampa e seu hábito de nidificação é subterrâneo. P. nigriceps nidifica em frestas de rochas e muros, sendo encontrada tanto no Pampa como em Mata Atlântica. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a variabilidade populacional destas duas espécies, através de três metodologias: a morfometria geométrica de asa, perfil de hidrocarbonetos cuticulares e sequenciamento de fragmentos de genes mitocondriais. Foram coletadas operárias de 24 colônias de M. caerulea em cinco localidades de sua distribuição natural e 53 colônias de P. nigriceps em oito localidades no estado do Rio Grande do Sul. Para análise do padrão de venação da asa, foram marcados 13 marcos anatômicos na asa anterior direita de cinco a 20 operárias por colônia. A análise genética foi realizada avaliando um fragmento do gene Citocromo Oxidase I em M. caerulea, e Citocromo B em P. nigriceps. A análise morfométrica demonstrou estruturação dos grupos com separação estatisticamente significativa (<0,0001) entre as localidades de M. caerulea. As distâncias morfométricas estão correlacionadas com a distância geográfica, e coerentes com regiões fisiográficas do bioma Pampa. A análise dos perfis de hidrocarbonetos distinguiu colônias de diferentes localidades, mas suas distâncias não apresentaram correlação com as distâncias geográficas. Foram encontrados seis haplótipos, todos exclusivos, com diversidade nucleotídica de 0,01631e uma diversidade haplotípica (Hd) de 0,74. Para P. nigriceps, as análises morfométricas apresentaram diferenças significativas entre localidades e correlação com as distâncias geográficas e biomas. A análise dos perfis de hidrocarbonetos distinguiu colônias de diferentes localidades, mas suas distâncias não apresentaram correlação com as distâncias geográficas. Foram encontrados 17 haplótipos, todos exclusivos, com diversidade nucleotídica de 0,0147 e diversidade haplotípica (Hd) de 0,94. A presença de diversos haplótipos exclusivos, perfis morfométricos e de hidrocarbonetos cuticulares em populações pertencentes a diferentes biomas indicam a necessidade de uma atenção especial para estas populações no momento da definição de estratégias de conservação das espécies. Uma especial atenção às abelhas da espécie Mourella caerulea, que além de ser uma espécie representante única de um gênero monoespecífico, apresenta grandes distâncias populacionais entre os indivíduos de todas as localidades amostradas. / Mourella caerulea and Plebeia nigriceps are two stingless bees with occurrence in the South region of Brazil. The first is commonly known as mirim-de-chão or bieira and the second is known as mirim nigriceps. Both species are important pollinators of native flora and crops. M. caerulea is related to Pampa biome and place nests on the ground. P. nigriceps occurs in both Pampa biome and Atlantic Rain Forest. This thesis had the objective of to evaluate the population variability of these species through three techniques: geometric morphometrics of wing, cuticular hydrocarbons (CHC) profiles and sequencing of fragments from mitochondrial DNA genes. We collected workers from 24 colonies for M. caerulea from five localities, and 53 colonies of P. nigriceps from eight localities in Rio Grande do Sul State. For the geometric morphometrics analysis, we used 13 landmarks plotted in the right forewing of five to 20 workers per nest. The fragments of mtDNA genes used for the molecular approach were from Cytochrome Oxidase I for M. caerulea and Cytochrome B for P. nigriceps. The morphometric approach discriminated the populations of M. caerulea from different localities (<0,0001). The morphometric distances are correlated to geographic distances and go along with the physiographic regions of Pampa biome. CHC profiles differentiated the colonies of M. caerulea from different localities, but chemical distances are not in agreement with geographic distances. We found six haplotypes (all exclusives) with a nucleotide diversity of 0.01631 and a haplotype diversity (Hd) of 0.74. For P. nigriceps, morphometric analysis was significant separating localities and in accordance with the geographic distances and biomes. CHC distinguished the colonies, but there was no significant correlation between this result and the geographic distances or biomes. mtDNA revealed 17 haplotypes (all exclusives) with a nucleotide diversity of 0.0147 and a haplotype diversity (Hd) of 0.94. The discovery of different exclusives haplotypes, the morphometric and CHC profiles when comparing population belonging to different biomes indicate that we need to give a particular attention for these species at the moment of create conservation strategies for both biomes from Rio Grande do Sul. M. caerulea deserves a special concern once it is the only species of the monospecific genera, and its populations are distant between themselves.

As abelhas sem ferrão estão entre os animais mais importantes para o equilíbrio do meio ambiente, isso devido a fatores como sua enorme diversidade e principalmente por serem importantes polinizadores tanto de ecossistemas naturais como de agroecossistemas. A necessidade de identificação dos animais amostrados por especialistas é fundamental para estudos ecológicos. Neste trabalho foram feitas análises interespecíficas e intra-populacionais sobre os indivíduos do gênero Schwarziana a fim de aperfeiçoar a utilização da técnica de morfometria geométrica, que nos permite identificações baseadas apenas nos padrões de venação das asas desses insetos. Não obstante, foram realizadas também análises de sequenciamento de dois genes do DNA mitocondrial, o COI e o 16S. O gênero estudado foi Schwarziana, com duas espécies válidas, S. quadripunctata e S. mourei. Nas análises morfométricas, os testes realizados por indivíduos os testes de validação cruzada identificaram de forma correta 70% das amostras de um total de 10 localidades diferentes. Esta acurácia aumenta ainda mais à medida que novos grupos são formados, alcançando próximo de 85% quando separadas por regiões. Em todos os ensaios realizados com a morfometria geométrica (partial warps e coordenadas alinhadas) atingiu-se uma taxa de 100% de identificação correta entre as duas espécies e nos ensaios feitos com as médias das colônias esta taxa também foi atingida para a identificação de todas as populações amostradas. Os testes feitos com os partial warps mostraram-se mais eficazes em relação às coordenadas alinhadas, já que nestes últimos a tolerância mínima para a separação dos grupos não foi atingida em alguns ensaios. As análises moleculares apontaram 53 sítios polimórficos para o gene COI, com um índice de diversidade nucleotídica de 0,02180 e de diversidade haplotípica de 0,8854, separando as amostras em 9 haplótipos, porém a rede de haplótipos não foi suficientemente conclusiva. A diferenciação genética total medida pelo parâmetro Fst somente para as populações de S. quadripunctata foi de 0.9453 (P<0,05). Já para o gene 16S foram encontrados 14 sítios polimórfico e um índice de diversidade nucleotídica de 0,00649 e de diversidade haplotípica de 0,8419, com 7 haplótipos gerados. O parâmetro Fst para todas amostras foi de 0.9552 (P<0,05) e somente para as de S. quadripunctata foi de 0.8736 (P<0,05). Para ambos os genes os testes Fst par-a-par mostraram uma maior variação entre as populações dos estados, mostrando que estas populações estão estruturadas. Os testes de Mantel correlacionaram positivamente os dados morfométricos, geográficos e moleculares. Das duas metodologias aplicadas em nossa pesquisa, podemos afirmar que a morfometria mostrou-se extremamente eficiente na diferenciação das populações amostradas. As análises moleculares indicaram que estas populações estão estruturadas mesmo analisando poucas amostras. No entanto ao unirmos estas duas metodologias, combinamos a simplicidade e a rapidez da morfometria geométrica com a capacidade sempre inovadora de estudos moleculares, obtendo desta forma ferramentas eficazes para acessar a biodiversidade em Meliponini, inclusive para rastrear geograficamente espécimes a partir de estudos com indivíduos de sua área de distibuição natural. / Stingless bees are among the most important animals to the environmental balance, that due to their diversity and mainly because they are important pollinators of both natural and agro-ecosystems. The need for identification of sampled animals by experts is essential for ecological studies. In this work, intra and interspecific population analysis was performed in order to improve the technique of geometric morphometry, which allows us to access this biodiversity through identifications based on patterns of wing venation of these insects. We also sequenced two mitochondrial genes, the COI and 16S. Schwarziana Lepeletier 1836 was the gender studied with two valid species, S. quadripunctata and S. mourei. In morphometric analysis, cross-validation tests carried out by individuals correctly identified 70% of samples from a total of 10 different locations. This accuracy increases further as new groups are formed, according to geographic proximity, reaching around 85% when separated by regions. In all tests with geometric morphometry (partial warps and aligned coordinates) reached a rate of 100% correct identification between the two species and the tests made with the averages of the colonies that rate achieved the perfect identification of all populations sampled. Partial warps tests were more effective in relation to aligned coordinates ones, as these last a minimum tolerance for the separation of the groups was not achieved in some tests. Molecular analysis showed 53 polymorphic sites for the COI gene, with nucleotide diversity of 0.02180 and haplotype diversity of 0.8854, separating the samples into 9 haplotypes, but their network of haplotypes was not sufficiently conclusive. The total genetic differentiation measured by Fst parameter only for the populations of S. quadripunctata was 0.9453 (P <0.05). As for the gene 16S, we found 14 polymorphic sites and a nucleotide diversity of 0.00649 and haplotype diversity of 0.8419, with seven haplotypes generated. The parameter Fst for all samples was 0.9552 (P <0.05) and only for S.quadripunctata was 0.8736 (P <0.05). For both genes Fst pairwise tests showed greater variation among populations of the states, showing these groups as a genetic structure. Mantel tests were positively correlated for morphometric, geographical and molecular data. Of the two methodologies in our research, we can affirm that the morphometry proved to be extremely efficient in the differentiation of populations. Molecular analysis showed that populations are consistent, even that a low sample size is available. However combining these two methodologies, we have joined the simplicity and speed of geometric morphometric with the always innovative ability of molecular studies, thus achieving effective tools for accessing biodiversity in Meliponini, including a geographically trace for specimens by studying individuals from their natural range.

La région du Cap, en Afrique du Sud, reflète une diversité biologique incontestée, tant actuelle que passée. Ce phénomène trouve son origine durant la période coloniale, alors que la main-d’oeuvre était puisée sur trois continents : Afrique, Asie et Europe. La population capétonienne s’est ainsi formée à travers la rencontre et le métissage de communautés diverses (esclaves, colons, groupes locaux). Le cimetière historique de Cobern Street (1750-1827), à Cape Town, représente une rare opportunité bioarchéologique d’étudier une population marquée par l’esclavage en contexte africain. La question des origines diverses des individus inhumés sur ce site a déjà été explorée avec l’archéologie funéraire, les analyses isotopiques, la morphologie dentaire ainsi que la craniométrie dite traditionnelle. Comme la morphométrie géométrique, jugée plus précise, n’a pas encore été utilisée pour approfondir cette question, ce projet propose de réévaluer les affinités biologiques de 21 individus issus de la collection de Cobern Street à l’aide de cette approche 3D et de points de repère cranio-faciaux. Cet échantillon a été comparé à un corpus de 479 individus provenant de divers groupes régionaux et/ou ethniques d’Afrique (Ouest, centre et Est; Coloured et Khoisan), de Madagascar, d’Asie (Est, Sud-Est et sous-continent indien) et d’Europe. Trois types d’analyse multivariée ont été effectués à l’échelle intra- et inter-populationnelle : l’analyse en composantes principales (PCA), l’analyse discriminante multiple (MDA) et l’analyse des variables canoniques (CVA). Tous les résultats confirment la grande hétérogénéité phénotypique présente au sein de la collection de Cobern Street. Conformément aux sources historiques, on retrouve des affinités avec des groupes d’Afrique (n = 8), d’Asie (n = 4), de Madagascar (n = 2) et du sous-continent indien (n = 2). Les influences africaines semblent prédominantes, ce qui concorde avec les résultats de la craniométrie traditionnelle (Ribot et al. 2017), mais pas avec ceux de la morphologie dentaire ayant décelé une présence asiatique plus élevée (Manyaapelo 2007). De plus, grâce à la morphométrie géométrique, combinée aux données isotopiques antérieures (Cox 1999), au moins cinq individus ont pu être identifiés comme étant possiblement métissés en raison de leurs affinités très diverses. Ce fait supporte ainsi la présence à Cape Town, dès le XVIIIe siècle, d’une mosaïque ethnique déjà complexe. / The Cape region in South Africa shows unique and high levels of biological diversity, through past and present times. This phenomenon dates back to the colonial period when labour forces came, willingly or not, from three continents: Africa, Asia and Europe. The capetonian population was hence shaped by the encounter and admixture of various groups (slaves, settlers, locals). The Cobern Street historic burial ground (1750-1827) in Cape Town provides a rare bioarchaeological opportunity to study a population affected by slavery in an African context. The diverse origins of the individuals buried there were already explored through funerary archaeology, isotopic analyses, dental morphology and "traditional" craniometry. However, geometric morphometrics, considered as a more precise approach, has not been applied to this population. This project thereby aims to reevaluate the biological affinities of 21 individuals from Cobern Street using a 3D method based on a series of craniofacial landmarks. They were compared to a sample of 479 individuals originating from numerous regions and/or ethnic groups from Africa (West, Central and East Africa; Coloured and Khoisan), Madagascar, Asia (East, Southeast and the Indian subcontinent) and Europe. Three types of multivariate analyses were performed on an intra- and interpopulational scale: Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Multivariate Discriminant Analysis (MDA) and Canonical Variate Analysis (CVA). All the results confirm the high levels of phenotypic diversity present in the Cobern Street sample. In agreement with historical sources, affinities were observed with groups from Africa (n = 8), Asia (n = 4), Madagascar (n = 2) and the Indian subcontinent (n = 2). The African component was predominant. This fact agrees with traditional craniometry (Ribot et al. 2017), but not with dental morphology which indicated more Asian input (Manyaapelo 2007). Furthermore, by comparing the various data from both geometric morphometrics and isotopic analyses (Cox 1999), at least five individuals were possibly identified as of mixed ancestry because of their very diverse affinities. This study supports the presence in Cape Town, since the 18th century, of an ethnic mosaic already rather complex.

Micrasterias rotata is a phylogenetically and morphologically well defined species that is widely distributed in Central Europe in a broad temperature gradient. For its complex cell shape Micrasterias rotata is a suitable model organism for cell morphogenesis research. This thesis investigated whether there could be a different pattern in morphological integration resulting from the temperature stress in Micrasterias rotata cells cultivated on a temperature gradient. The optimum and a limits of growth on the temperature gradient were related to the sampling locations of the studied strains isolated from a lowland wetland and an high alpine lake. Differences in the growth rates among the strains suggested a local adaptation to the climatic conditions of the original locations but relatively high values of the assumed optimum growth temperature suggested an intra- species evolutionary adaptation. The temperature-related size reduction rule was not confirmed; however, a similar pattern of variation in shape occurred in both strains. The morphological integration analysis has basically confirmed that the Micrasterias cell is composed of a number of morphological modules related to its differentiation into the lobes and sublobes. Integration between the lobes of the opposite semicell was primarily...

There is an understanding among biological anthropologists that long bone epiphyseal shape is highly regulated by genetic and biomechanical factors. Conversely, long bone diaphyseal geometry and robusticity have been shown to respond to activity in life. The current study examined the assumption of epiphyseal consistency by exploring the relationship between a well established bony response to activity (Cross-Sectional Geometry) and shape change among the proximal humerus and femur. Long bone samples were taken from four hunter-gatherer populations: the Andaman Islanders, the Indian Knoll, Point Hope Alaskans, and the Sadlermiut. Shape was measured through landmark configurations placed on the proximal end of a total of 91 humeri and 84 femora. Cross-sectional Geometry measures (J) were taken from each specimen, as well. Principal Component Analyses were conducted on the landmark shape data to determine where the shape variation was occurring among the sample. These Principal Components were then compared via Bivariate Regression to the J values taken from the diaphysis. Significant relationships occurred between the development of the lesser tubercle and an increase in J among the humerus sample. Significant relationships were also found among the femur sample; as when J increased the proximal epiphyses were more likely to be more gracile, and the space between the femoral head and the greater trochanter increased. The humerus results indicated a more robust proximal epiphysis in groups with activities that rely heavily on the upper body, such as rowing, swimming, and harpooning. The femur results were more complex, as the relationship between activity and proximal shape is likely heavily influenced by a genetically predetermined body shape. These results indicated that there is a relationship between activity and proximal epiphyseal shape, but that it, like all relationships, is complex, and comprised of multiple factors. Ultimately, proximal long bone shape is the result of multiple influences including, activity, genetics, population adaptation, health, and many more. Future research should focus on determining if the relationship between activity and shape exists among other populations, and when and where it begins during growth and development. / Graduate

Les invasions biologiques sont un composant du changement global et ont des impacts dramatiques sur les écosystèmes, les agrosystèmes et la santé humaine. Néanmoins, ces processus biologiques particuliers offrent la possibilité d'étudier l'évolution phénotypique et génétique en un sur des temps écologiques. En effet, les invasions biologiques impliquent de fortes contraintes environnementales et démographiques sur les populations, et de forts effets sous-jacents de la sélection et de la dérive. Pourtant, les espèces envahissantes sont parmi les colonisateurs les plus prolifiques de la nature, et surprennent par leur capacité à répondre à ces contraintes. Le potentiel évolutif et adaptatif des populations envahissantes a été à de nombreuses reprises proposé comme facteur facilitant le succès de ces invasions. Qu'il s'agisse de processus génétiques d'adaptations (i.e. des changements de fréquences d'allèles) ou plastiques (i.e. un ajustement par plasticité phénotypique en réponse à un stimulus environnemental), la capacité de réponse à la sélection des espèces envahissantes les placent au centre des études de la biologie évolutive moderne. Ici, nous utilisons la récente invasion mondiale de la drosophile à ailes tachetées Drosophila suzukii pour étudier en détail les mécanismes de la réponse à la sélection potentiellement impliqués dans le succès de cette invasion. L'analyse des patrons de variations moléculaires neutre, nous ont permit de retracer l'histoire complexe de cette invasion mondiale, et d'évaluer par la suite la divergence phénotypique et l'évolution de la variation génétique quantitative en comparant les populations ancestrales de D. suzukii à leurs populations dérivées. Nous avons pu ainsi estimer les effets de la sélection et de la dérive génétique au cours de cette invasion, et discuter leur importance au regard de l'évolution de la forme de l'aile dans cette espèce. Enfin des protocoles expérimentaux d'analyse de la plasticité phénotypique ainsi que des méthodes de modélisation de niche climatique nous permettent de discuter l'influence de la fluctuation des conditions environnementales sur le succès de cette invasion. / Biological invasions are a component of global change and have dramatic effects on ecosystems, agrosystems and human health. Nonetheless, these peculiar biological processes offer a great opportunity for the study of rapid phenotypic and genetic evolution, at an ecological timescale. Biological invasions often involve environmental and demographic constraints on populations, as well as strong effects of selection and drift. However, these species are among the most successful colonialists in nature, and their ability to respond to these constraints is remarkable. The evolutionary and adaptive potential of invasive populations have been proposed as facilitating factors of the success of invasions. Processes of genetic (i.e. changes in allele frequencies) and plastic (i.e. adjustment to environmental fluctuation through phenotypic plasticity) involved in the success of biological invasions are at the center of modern evolutionary biology. Here, we use the recent spread of the spotted-wing Drosophila suzukii to study the underlying mechanisms of response to selection potentially involved in the success of this global invasion. Analyzing patterns of neutral genetic variation allowed us to decipher the complex history of this worldwide invasion, and subsequently evaluate phenotypic divergence and evolution of quantitative genetic variation among ancestral and derived populations. We thus estimated the effects of selection and drift throughout this invasion and discuss their importance regarding the evolution of wing shape in this species. Finally, experimental protocols on the analysis of phenotypic plasticity as well as Species Distribution Modeling methods allowed us to discuss the influence of environmental fluctuations on the success of this invasion.

La reconstitution faciale a pour but de restituer le visage d’un individu à partir de la morphologie de son crâne. Cette technique est utilisée en anthropologie médico-légale pour apporter de nouveaux témoignages dans l’identification de restes humains. Les objectifs de thèse sont d’établir une base de données crânio-faciale 3D de Français grâce à l’imagerie médicale, de tester les règles traditionnelles de reconstitution, et de quantifier les corrélations morphologiques entre tissus osseux et cutanés. Des examens hospitaliers par scanner tomodensitométrique (18 – 96 ans ; sexe ratio 1,16:1) ont été traités avec le logiciel TIVMI pour reconstruire avec précision les surfaces osseuses et cutanées. Plus de 200 points de repère ont pu être positionnés sur 500 individus, en suivant un protocole précis (répétabilité et reproductibilité vérifiées). L’extraction de distances Euclidiennes a permis de tester plusieurs règles traditionnelles, et d’étudier la spécificité et la variabilité des épaisseurs de tissus mous. Parallèlement, les coordonnées 3D des points ont été analysées par morphométrie géométrique. Les covariations entre groupes de points osseux et cutanés ont pu être quantifiées, ainsi que les asymétries, allométries, et influences de l’âge et du sexe sur les variations de conformation. Ces résultats ont permis l’élaboration d’une méthode d’estimation de la position des points de repère du visage, et la création (en collaboration avec le LaBRI) d’un module de reconstitution faciale nommé AFA3D. Basé sur le principe de déformation d’un visage synthétique, ce logiciel restitue la forme la plus probable du visage en fonction de la position de 78 points crâniométriques. / Facial approximation aims at the production of a face based on the skull morphology. This technique is performed in forensic anthropology to bring new testimonies in cases of human remains identification. The goals of this research are to establish a database of French skulls and faces in 3D through medical imaging, to test traditional guidelines, and to quantify the morphological correlations between soft and hard tissues. Computed tomography exams, collected in French hospitals (18 – 96 years; sex ratio 1.16:1), were treated with TIVMI software to reconstruct accurately the bone and skin surfaces. More than 200 landmarks have been placed on 500 subjects, following a protocol which repeatability and reproducibility have been checked. The extraction of Euclidian distances allowed testing traditional guidelines, and studying specificity and variability of soft tissue depths. In parallel, the 3D coordinates were analyzed with geometric morphometrics. Covariations between groups of bone landmarks and groups of skin landmarks were quantified, along with asymmetry, allometry, and influences of age and sex on the shape changes. These results allowed for the creation of a method to estimate the position of skin landmarks, and for the development of a facial approximation module in TIVMI, called AFA3D (in collaboration with the LaBRI). Based on the warping of a synthetic face, this software renders the most probable face depending on the position of 78 cranial landmarks.

With both a heterogeneous population and a large number of unidentified persons in South Africa, an accurate method to estimate ancestry is needed. The purpose of this study was to evaluate variation in nasal aperture shape in black, white and coloured South Africans, using linear measures and geometric morphometrics (GM), the latter which includes both procrustes analysis (GPA) and elliptical fourier analysis (EFA). To test statistical significance among groups, discriminant function analysis (DFA) and principal component analysis (PCA) was used. A total of 310 (164 male, 145 female) crania of black, white and coloured South Africans were used. Thirteen standard landmarks, namely, glabella, nasion, nasale superior, dacryon, nasale inferius, alare, most inferior nasal border and subspinale, were digitised with a MicroScribe G2™ (Immersion: San Jose, CA). Five linear measures, nasion-dacryon angle (NDA), nasal breadth (NLB), nasal height (NLH), inter-orbital breadth (DKB) and nasion-dacryon subtense (NDS), were calculated. For EFA, photographs were taken in a frontal plane of skulls that had been positioned in the Frankfort horizontal plane on a craniophore. All classification accuracies for all groups were better than chance. Using linear measures and GPA, black South Africans classified 55-71% correctly, coloured classified 53-61% correctly and whites classified 85-95% correctly. Black and coloured South Africans demonstrated bell-shaped nasal apertures with nasal spines superior to the inferior nasal border. White South Africans had pear-shaped nasal apertures with a nasal spine inferior of the inferior nasal border. Using EFA black South Africans classified 62% correctly. While coloured South Africans only classified 39% correctly, which demonstrates high within group variability. Due to their unique historical development, large variation (heterogeneity) within the coloured group was expected. White South Africans had the highest correct classification accuracy of 85%. For all methods, misclassification rarely occurred between white and non-white (black and coloured) groups and most difficulties arose in distinguishing non-white groups from each other. High rates of misclassification was also noted between sex designations within a group, which suggests less or an absence of sexual dimorphism for these variables The distinct separation of white South Africans may reflect the mid-to late 20th century political and social separation of white and non-white groups in South Africa. Nasal aperture shape, alone, is less useful for separating groups such that all groups have relatively intermediate nasal aperture shapes; however the pinched nasal bone structure of white South Africans clearly separates them from the other groups. When using nasal bone and aperture landmarks, linear measures are as accurate as the modern geometric techniques in distinguishing groups. All methods are feasible to use in the estimation of ancestry on modern South Africans, with craniometry a sensible solution as the data can be rapidly collected, accurately analysed and compared to current reference samples. Copyright / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Anatomy / unrestricted

The origins of population dynamics depend on interplay between abiotic and biotic factors; the relative importance of each changing across space and time. Predation is a central feature of ecological communities that removes individuals (consumption) and alters prey traits (non-consumptive). Resource quality mitigates non-consumptive predator effects by stimulating growth and reproduction. Disturbance resets predator-prey interactions by removing both. I integrate experiments, time-series analysis, and performance trials to examine the relative importance of these on the population dynamics of a snail species by studying a variety of their traits. A review of ninety-three published articles revealed that snail abundance was much less in the Everglades and similar ecosystems compared to all other freshwater ecosystems considered. Separating consumptive from non-consumptive (cues) predator effects at different phosphorous levels with an experiment determined that phosphorous stimulated, but predator cues inhibited snail growth (34% vs. 23%), activity (38% vs. 53%), and reproductive effort (99% vs. 90%) compared to controls. Cues induced taller shells and smaller openings and moved to refugia where they reduced periphyton by 8%. Consumptive predator effects were minor in comparison. In a reciprocal transplant cage experiment along a predator cue and phosphorous gradient created by a canal, snails grew 10% faster and produced 37% more eggs far from the canal (fewer cues) when fed phosphorous-enriched periphyton from near the canal. Time-series analysis at four sites and predator performance trials reveal that phosphorous-enriched regions support larger snail populations, seasonal drying removes snails at all sites, crayfish negatively affect populations in enriched regions, and molluscivorous fish consume snails in the wet season. Combining these studies reveals interplay between resources, predators, and seasonality that limit snail populations in the Everglades and lead to their low abundance compared to other freshwater ecosystems. Resource quality is emerging as the critical factor because improving resources profoundly improved growth and reproduction; seasonal drying and predation become important at times and places. This work contributes to the general understanding in ecology of the relative importance of different factors that structure populations and provides evidence that bolsters monitoring efforts to assess the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan that show phosphorous enrichment is a major driver of ecosystem change.

O mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus tem grande importância médica no mundo devido à sua habilidade como vetor de arboviroses e filarioses. O principal fator limitante dos métodos de controle populacional para Cx. quinquefasciatus é a microevolução dessa espécie, fenômeno que freqüentemente resulta em aumento da sua resistência a inseticidas e da sua tolerância à poluição. No Estado de São Paulo existem duas populações vivendo sob diferentes condições ambientais. Uma delas, próxima ao Rio Pinheiros (PIN), está sujeita à alta poluição e aplicações de piretróides e outra, em Pariquera-Açu (PAR), vive em local semi-rural na ausência de inseticidas. O objetivo deste trabalho foi investigar se essas populações provenientes de ambientes distintos possuem polimorfismos genéticomorfológicos e se a população PIN apresenta variações morfológicas ao longo do tempo. Os parâmetros utilizados nas comparações foram morfometria geométrica alar, análises do DNA ribossômico (DNAr) e de cromossomos politênicos. Não obtivemos sucesso na caracterização cariotípica devido a pouca nitidez das bandas e interbandas. A morfometria geométrica de 286 asas de PIN, amostras coletadas em 2004 (PIN04) e 2007 (PIN07), e 150 asas de PARI, amostras coletadas em 2008 demonstrou variações morfológicas. As duas populações PIN04 e PIN07 revelaram alto dimorfismo sexual de forma e tamanho, sendo asas de fêmeas maiores que asas de machos em ambas as populações. A assimetria bilateral não é significante para tamanho e é tênue para forma, sendo ligeiramente mais pronunciada em machos e em PIN07. Os espécimes de PIN07 são maiores e mais assimétricos que PARI, fenômenos possivelmente relacionados à maior disponibilidade de alimento e à contínua exposição a altos níveis de inseticida, respectivamente. Análises de DNAr revelaram padrões equivalentes para PIN07 e PARI. Em suma, supomos que o fluxo gênico entre as populações geográficas pode ter ocorrido até recentemente. Este estudo mostrou que é possível ocorrer variação de tamanho e forma de asas em Culicidae em um intervalo de tempo de três anos. O próximo passo poderia ser uma investigação aprofundada a respeito da relação entre variação geográfica-temporal e algumas de suas possíveis causas tais como poluição e inseticida. / The mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus has medical importance due to its ability of vectoring arboviruses and filariases. Microevolution resulting in insecticide resistance is a remarkable limiting factor for populational control of this species. In the State of São Paulo there are two populations under different environmental conditions. One, near Rio Pinheiros (PIN), is subjected to pollution and pyrethroids applications and another, in Pariquera-Açu (PAR), lives in a semi-rural place in the absence of insecticides. The objective of this work was to investigate if these populations from different environments have geneticmorphological polymorphisms and if PIN population exhibits morphological variations during the time. Parameters used in the comparisons were wing geometric morphometrics, ribosomal DNA (rDNA), and polytene chromosomes. Karyotypic characterization was unsuccessful due to the poor definition of bands and interbands. Morphometrical analyses of 286 wings of PIN, collected in 2004 (PIN04) and 2007 (PIN07), and 150 wings of PARI, collected in 2008, demonstrate morphological variations. The two populations PIN04 and PIN07 revealed strong intrapopulational sexual dimorphism concerning shape and size, being the wings of females larger than those of males in both populations. The wing asymmetry is non-significant for size and tenuous for shape, being slightly more conspicuous in males and in PIN07. The specimens of PIN07 are larger and more bilaterally asymmetric than PARI, possibly due to higher food availability and to continuous exposition to high level of insecticide, respectively. Analysis of rDNA revealed restriction patterns equivalent for PIN07 and PARI populations. Thus, one may suppose that gene flow may have occurred until recently. This study showed that it is possible to occur size and shape variation of wings in Culicidae in time intervals as short as three years. The next step would be to evaluate in depth the relationship between geographical-temporal variation and some of possible causes like pollution and insecticides.