Aim:  The present study aimed to determine if foreign-born women from different countries of birth have a greater risk of GDM compared to Swedish-born women and to what extent income might mediate this relationship. Methods: This cross-sectional type study included 835279 women, of which 151,642 were foreign-born and 683637 were Swedish-born women who gave birth to their first singleton child in Sweden between 1997 to 2016. Register data from the Swedish Medical Birth Register, the Swedish Total Population Register, and the Longitudinal Integrated Database for Health Insurance and Labour Market Studies was used. Multiple Logistic Regression analysis and the Karlson-Holm-Breen methods were used to explore the relationship between GDM and country of birth and to estimate the proportion of the association explained by income. Results:  Foreign-born women demonstrated higher odds ratios for developing GDM than Swedish-born women. South East Asian women showed the highest risk of GDM (OR: 4.40, CI: 4.01-4.81) followed by Africa (OR: 3.42, CI: 3.07-3.81) and Middle East & North Africa (OR: 2.92, CI: 2.67-3.20) respectively. Income partially explained the risk of GDM differences between foreign-born and Swedish-born women, accounting for 26% of the association. However, the proportion explained by income varies from 8.9% to 23.0% by country of birth. Conclusions:  A disparity exists in the risk of GDM based on country of birth, and Foreign-born women are more likely to have GDM and need additional support, including prenatal care and treatment. Since income only partially explains this association, other factors that may explain the association need to be explored.

Background: Although lifestyle modification is the cornerstone of GDM management, the evidence base on which dietary recommendations to prevent GDM is diverse and has not been synthesized in a consistent fashion. Objectives: The overall objective of this thesis is to assess the relationship of diet patterns, foods, and nutrients with GDM risk. Specifically, we seek to: 1) Quantify the relationship between dietary factors and GDM and metabolic disorders of pregnancy; 2) Compare the effects of dietary factors on markers of glycemic control, such as fasting glucose, fasting insulin, HbA1c, and the homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR); 3) Assess the association and interaction between carbohydrate quality, and genetic load on the risk of developing GDM using data from 2 prospective birth cohort studies. Methods: We follow the approach set by the Cochrane Group’s Handbook for Systematic Review of Interventions to conduct meta-analyses and assess the quality of the evidence using the GRADE (Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation) approach. We analyze prospective cohort data of 2,504 women from the CHILD and START studies, which enrolled women of White-Caucasian and South Asian ethnicity. We quantify carbohydrate quality by deriving the glycemic index and load (GL), and total and added sugar intake. We construct a gene score using 102 loci that were previously associated with type 2 diabetes in genome-wide association studies. Results: 1) The meta-analysis identified high-quality evidence that red meat increases GDM risk; however, most associations of foods and nutrients with GDM and other metabolic disorders of pregnancy are of low-quality; 2) The network meta-analysis identified that most dietary interventions given with gestational weight gain advice will lower fasting glucose; 3) In South Asians, a high GL coupled with a high genetic load increased GDM risk six fold, but a high total sugar intake in the presence of a high genetic load reduced GDM risk. This paradoxical finding may be explained by a high correlation between total sugars and other healthy foods. Conclusions: Few valid associations between dietary factors and GDM risk exist. GL and total sugars may modify the genetic risk of GDM in South Asians but not in White-Caucasians. Further research is needed to determine effective interventions that can assist women in adopting healthier eating habits during pregnancy. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is glucose intolerance that first appears during pregnancy. Although lifestyle modification is the cornerstone of GDM management, dietary recommendations for GDM prevention are sparse. The overarching objective of this thesis is to describe the relationships between diets, foods, and nutrients and GDM and metabolic disorders of pregnancy and to understand whether carbohydrate quality can modify a genetic predisposition to diabetes. In the systematic literature reviews, high-quality evidence showed that red meat increases GDM risk. Moderate-quality evidence showed that several dietary factors also influence the risk of GDM and metabolic disorders of pregnancy, but most of the existing evidence is of low-quality. More high-quality studies are needed before dietary interventions can be implemented In our genetic study, we observed that carbohydrate quality may modify the genetic risk of diabetes in South Asians but not in White-Caucasians and conclude that carbohydrate quality may provide only a limited assessment of overall diet quality.

Ziel: In der vorliegenden Studie wurden kontinuierliche Blutzuckertagesprofile über 48 h bei Schwangeren unterschiedlicher Glukosetoleranz erhoben und mit der Ernährung zu häuslichen Bedingungen verglichen. Ergebnisse: Bei den Gestationsdiabetikerinnen wurden statistisch signifikant länger Konzentrationen über 130 mg/dl gemessen als bei den gesunden Schwangeren. Keine Unterschiede ergaben sich in Bezug auf folgende Werte: Mittelwert, Zeitdauern mit Blutzuckerwerten < 50 mg/dl, >120 mg/dl, >140 mg/dl, >150 mg/dl. Periprandial wurden bei den Gestationsdiabetikerinnen und den Schwangeren mit IGT signifikant höhere Maximalwerte im Anschluss an die Mahlzeit gemessen, als bei gesunden Schwangeren. Keine Unterschiede ergaben sich hinsichtlich der Anfangswerte und der Area under the curve. In einigen Gruppen bestanden positive Korrelationen zwischen der Zufuhr von Disacchariden und Parametern der Glukosemessung, in der Gruppe der Gestationsdiabetikerinnen bestand eine signifikante negative Korrelation zwischen dem Stärkekonsum und dem Mittelwert der Glukosemessung. Nach Mahlzeiten, deren Hauptkohlenhydratquelle mit einem höheren glykämischen Index nach Jenkins attribuiert war, fiel die Glukosereaktion größer aus, als bei Mahlzeiten mit niedrigem glykämischem Index. Zusammenfassung: In dieser prospektiven Studie konnte mit Hilfe der Technik der kontinuierlichen Glukosemessung die Verbindung zwischen Blutzuckertagesprofil und Ernährungsgewohnheiten zu häuslichen- also nicht klinisch- artifiziellen- Bedingungen hergestellt werden. / Objective: In the present study continuous glucose profiles in pregnant women with various levels of glucose tolerance were evaluated and compared with their diet in domestic conditions. Results: In women with GDM significantly longer periods with glucose levels above 130 mg/dl were measured than in healthy women. No differences were assessed as to average glucose levels and periods with glucose levels < 50 mg/dl, >120 mg/dl, >140 mg/dl, >150 mg/dl. In pregnant women with gestational diabetes or impaired glucose tolerance higher maximum glucose levels after a meal were found than in healthy women. No differences were found as to glucose levels at the beginning of the meal and area under the curve. In some groups positive correlations were calculated between intake of disaccharides and the glucose measurement, in gestational diabetic women a negative correlation between intake of starch and the average of the glucose level was found. After meals in which the main carbohydrate source was attributed with a high glycemic index change of the glucose level was higher than after meals with a low glycemic index. Conclusion: In the present prospective study we established the relation between glucose profiles measured by the method of continuous glucose monitoring and dietary habits in domestic conditions in pregnant women.

Gestationdiabetes (GDM) ist eine der häufigsten Schwangerschaftserkrankungen mit einer Inzidenz von 3-10% je nach untersuchter Population. GDM ist definiert als eine erstmals in der Schwangerschaft diagnostizierte Glukosetoleranzstörung. Die kindlichen Komplikationen resultieren aus der maternalen Hyperglykämie , die zu erhöhten fetalen Blutglukosespiegeln und reaktivem fetalen Hyperinsulinismus führt. Der fetale Hyperinsulinsmus gilt als Ursache für die typische Diabetes assoziierte fetale und neonatale Morbidität, wie Makrosomie, verzögerte Lungenreife, Totgeburten, neonataler Hypoglykämie und nicht zu vergessen, einem lebenslang erhöhten Risiko für Diabetes. Die Behandlung des GDM konzentriert sich auf eine strenge Stoffwechselkontrolle zur Vermeidung von maternaler Hyperglykämie. Dies erfordert Diät und intensive Blutzuckerselbstkontrolle bei allen und zusätzliche Insulintherapie bei 30% der Schwangeren. Trotz dieser Intervention ist die Rate an neonatalen Komplikationen weiterhin erhöht. Das primäre Ziel der in der vorgelegten Habilitationsschrift zusammengefassten Studien war, zu bestimmen, in welchem Ausmaß die maternalen Glukosewerte in Schwangerschaften , die nach dem Standardmanagement behandelt wurden, prädiktiv sind für kindliche Morbidität sowohl in der frühen als auch im späteren Verlauf der Schwangerschaft. In einem zweiten Schritt wollten wir untersuchten, ob die Einbeziehung des fetalen Wachstums das Outcome verbessert und als Mittel zu antenatalen Risikoabschätzung hilfreich ist. Wir fanden eine ausgezeichnete Korrelation zwischen dem Grad der maternalen Hyperglykämie und der Morbidität in der Frühschwangerschaft. Die Höhe der Nüchternglukosewerte zum Zeitpunkt der Diagnose war der stärkste Prädiktor für kongenitale Fehlbildungen in einer großen Kohorte von 3700 Frauen. Dahingegen waren weder die diagnostischen Kriterien für GDM noch die Werte der mütterlichen Blutzuckertagesprofile prädiktiv für Morbidität in späteren Verlauf der Schwangerschaft. Entgegen der Übereinkunft, dass die Diagnose GDM mindestens zwei pathologische Werte in einem oralen Glukosetoleranztest erfordert, fanden wir bereits bei einem pathologischen Wert eine erhöhte Rate an fetalem Hyperinsulinismus, Makrosomie und neonataler Hyperglykämie. Im Gegensatz dazu war das Vorliegen einer maternalen Adipositas eng mit der Entstehung einer fetalen Makrosomie assoziiert. Wir wählten den fetalen Abdominalumfang (AU) als Mass für Makrosomie, da sich dieser als hervorragender Prädiktor für die Entstehung einer Diabetes assoziierten Maskrosomie erwiess. Zudem sahen wir eine gute Korrelation der fetalen Insulinspiegel, indirekt bestimmt über das Insulin im Fruchtwasser , und dem fetalen AU. Nach unseren Daten, schließt ein AU < 75. Perzentile das Vorliegen eines gravierenden Hyperinsulinismus aus. Basierend auf dieser Erkenntnis führten wir drei Interventionsstudien durch, bei denen die Indikation für Insulintherapie bei Schwangeren mit GDM primär nach dem fetalen AU gestellt wurde. Wir konnten zeigen, dass dieser Therapieansatz, der Insulintherapie auf Frauen mit Risiko für neonatale Morbidität , definiert als AU > 75. Perzentile , konzentriert, in einer niedrigeren Makrosomie- und Sektiorate resultiert, wenn bei Schwangerschaften mit AU > 75. Perzentile trotz maternaler Normoglykämie Insulin gegeben wird. Anderseits konnte 40% der Frauen mit Hyperglykämie eine Insulintherapie erspart werden ohne Verschlechterung des Outcomes , da der Fet während der gesamten Schwangerschaft ein normales Wachstum zeigte. Im Gegenteil, bei diesen Frauen war die Rate an Wachstumsretardierung deutlich geringer als in der Standardgruppe, in der hyperglykämische Frauen mit Insulin behandelten wurden trotz normalem oder bereits grenzwertigem fetalen Wachstum. Zusammenfassend lässt sich feststellen , das bei Schwangerschaften mit GDM die maternalen Blutzuckerwerte ein guter Prädiktor sind für Morbidität in der Frühschwangerschaft , jedoch nur begrenzt hilfreich sind, einen fetalen Hyperinsulinismus und seine Folgen hervorzusagen. Die Einbeziehung der fetalen Makrosomie als klinisches Zeichen eines möglichen Hyperinsulinismus, ermöglicht, die intensive Intervention durch Insulintherapie auf Schwangere zu konzentrieren mit erhöhten Risiko für neonatale Morbidität. / Gestational diabetes (GDM) is one of the most frequent disorders in pregnancy. The incidence ranges between 3-10% dependent on the background diabetes risk of the investigated population. GDM is defined as any glucose intolerance diagnosed first in pregnancy. The implications for the offspring result from the maternal hyperglycemia which leads to increased fetal blood glucose concentration and reactive fetal hyperinsulinism. Fetal hyperinsulinism is the cause for the diabetes associated fetal and neonatal morbidity, like macrosomia, delayed maturity of lungs and liver, stillbirth , neonatal hypoglycemia and an increased risk for diabetes in later life. Treatment of GDM focuses on tight glucose control to avoid maternal hyperglycemia. This requires diet and intensive self glucose monitoring for all women and additionally insulin therapy in 30% of the patients. Despite good glucose control the rate of neonatal morbidity is still elevated compared to pregnancies without glucose intolerance. The primary goal of the presented work was to determine to what extend maternal glycemia in GDM pregnancies treated according to the standard management predicts morbidity as well in early as well as in late pregnancy. In a second step, we investigated whether inclusion of fetal growth pattern improves the neonatal outcome and provides an additional tool for antenatal risk assessment. We found an excellent correlation between the level of maternal hyperglycemia and morbidity in early pregnancies. The fasting glucose at diagnosis of GDM was the strongest predictor for congenital anomalies in a large cohort of 3700 women with GDM. In later pregnancy, we were faced with a different situation. The data of our studies indicated that neither the current diagnostic criteria nor the maternal glucose values during therapy reliably predict neonatal morbidity. The diagnosis of GDM requires two elevated values in an oral glucose tolerance test but we found elevated amniotic fluid insulin, neonatal macrosomia and hypoglycemia even in women with only one elevated value. The values of the daily glucose profiles had not been predictive for the development of fetal macrosomia defined as an abdominal circumference (AC) > 90the percentile. In contrast, maternal obesity was tightly related to excessive fetal growth. We choose the fetal AC to diagnose intrauterine macrosomia since the fetal AC revealed to be an excellent predictor for neonatal macrosomia. Additionally, the fetal AC showed a good correlation to the fetal insulin levels determined by measurements of amniotic fluid insulin. A fetal AC > 75th percentile reliable excluded severe hyperinsulinism in our population. Based on this knowledge we performed three intervention studies where the decision for insulin therapy in women with GDM was predominately based on the fetal AC measurement. We could show that insulin therapy concentrated on pregnancies at risk for morbidity, defined as AC > 75th percentile, is a safe approach which results in a lower rate of neonatal macrosomia when insulin is given in pregnancies with AC > 75th percentile despite of normal maternal glucose level. On the other side, insulin could be avoided in 40% of the women with hypergylcemia since the fetal AC stayed < 75th percentile. In these women, the outcome even could be improved since insulin therapy in pregnancies with normal growth resulted in a high rate of growth retardation in the study group treated according the standard management. In summary, in pregnancies with GDM maternal blood glucose predicts morbidity in early pregnancy but it is of limited value to predict fetal hyperinsulinsm and it’s sequelae. The inclusion of fetal growth pattern in the considerations of therapy offers the opportunity to concentrate intensive intervention on pregnancies at high risk for morbidity.

Worauf schon die Literatur hinweist, kann mit dieser Studie bestätigt werden: Eine langfristige metabolische Kontrolle stellt einen essentiellen Faktor in der adäquaten Betreuung von GDM Patientinnen dar. Dies wird nicht nur durch eine IGT bei einem Drittel der Probandinnen, sondern auch durch durchschnittlich höhere Insulin- und Kortisolspiegel 5,5 Jahre nach der Erkrankung bestätigt. Die Objektivierung einer psychiatrischen Beeinträchtigung oder Einschränkung neuropsychologischer Funktionen aufgrund einer persistierenden Hyperglykämie konnte nicht eindeutig bestätigt werden. In Gedächtnistests sowie im subjektiven psychischen und somatischen Befinden konnten nur tendenzielle Unterschiede gemessen werden. Dies gilt auch in Abhängigkeit von der metabolischen Kontrolle unabängig eines zu Grunde liegenden Gestationsdiabetes. Auch wenn die Studie keine kognitive Beeinträchtigung nachweisen konnte, sind Störungen durch langfristige metabolische Dysfunktionen nicht auszuschliessen. Bei der Durchführung weiterer derartiger Studien sind unbedingt die von uns einbezogenen Stoffwechselparameter (Kortisol, Insulin und Glukose) mit Einfluss auf die Kognition einzubeziehen. Ein regelmässiges Follow-Up der Schwangeren mit Gestationsdiabetes sollte in jedem Fall erfolgen, um einen postpartalen Typ-2-Diabetes mellitus rechtzeitig zu erkennen und therapieren zu können. / This study can confirm the importance of long term metabolic control in GDM Patients as the existing literature is already pointing out. It is an essential aspect in the adequate support of patients with gestational diabetes. It is shown not only by an impaired glucose tolerance in one third of GDM Patients but also by insuline and glucagon levels above average 5.5 Years after the concerning pregnancy. The objectification of psychiatric impairment or impairment in neuropsychological functions due to persistent hyperglycaemia could not be proved clearly. In memory tests as in psychological or somatic findings we could only measure tendencies without significant differences. This counts also for the metabolic control itself without the existence of preceding gestational diabetes. Even though there were no cognitive impairments proven, we could not exclude any disturbances due to long term metabolic dysfunction. With the execution of future studies, metabolic parameter that we used (Insulin, Glucagone, Glucose) should be included as influencing parameter to cognitive functions. A Follow Up in GDM Patients should be performed regularly in any case, not only to exclude the development of a possible diabetes mellitus.

O diabetes mellitus (DM) é definido como doença metabólica, caracterizado pela hiperglicemia, causada pela disfunção da secreção de insulina, atividade da insulina ou ambas. É classificado em quatro classes clínicas i) diabetes mellitus tipo 1 (DM1), ii) diabetes mellitus tipo 2 (DM2), iii) diabetes mellitus gestacional (DMG), iv) outros tipos específicos. Dentre os genes conhecidos por influenciarem o mecanismo de produção e liberação de insulina no organismo humano, o gene da insulina (INS) é o mais bem caracterizado nas classes clínicas do DM. A região promotora do gene INS tem sido alvo de estudo em diversas amostras populacionais do mundo, devido a sua capacidade de modular os níveis de expressão de insulina no timo e no pâncreas, de acordo, com a classe alélica que compõe o genótipo do indivíduo. Localizada a 596pb acima do sítio de transcrição do gene da insulina, é estruturada em alelos minissatélites distribuídos in tandem (ACAGGGGTGTGGGG). O alelo classe I (30 - 60 repetições) tem sido associado com predisposição ao DM1, enquanto o alelo classe III (120 - 170 repetições) tem efeito de proteção ao DM1, no entanto, esse alelo tem apresentado correlação ao DM2, à obesidade em crianças e jovens e, aumento de riscos cardiovasculares. O presente trabalho tem como objetivo analisar o polimorfismo da região promotora do gene da insulina sobre os fenótipos do DM e a possível influência desse em características demográficas, clínicas e laboratoriais desses pacientes. Foram analisados 189 pacientes com DM1, 116 pacientes com DM2, 68 pacientes com DMG e 339 indivíduos controle da região de Ribeirão Preto, SP. O DNA genômico foi extraído por salting-out, seguido da amplificação e digestão enzimática do fragmento referente a região promotora do gene INS, o qual contém na sequência downstream, o polimorfismo -23HphI, cujo desequilíbrio de ligação (r2 1) com o polimorfismo INSVNTR, permite inferir os genótipos por intermédio da análise do polimorfismo -23HphI. Observamos que o alelo classe I e o genótipo classe I : classe I estão relacionados à predisposição ao DM1, enquanto o alelo classe III, predominantemente em homozigose, está associado à proteção ao DM1. Em relação ao DM2, o genótipo classe I : classe III foi associado à susceptibilidade a doença e, nenhum genótipo foi correlacionado ao DMG. De acordo com os dados demográficos, clínicos e laboratoriais, variáveis como gênero e pigmentação da pele têm influenciado na frequência do polimorfismo INSVNTR em pacientes com DM1, como por exemplo, a maior frequência de homens com genótipo classe I : classe I no conjunto DM1. Em contrapartida, nesse mesmo grupo de pacientes, o genótipo classe III : classe III evidenciou maior susceptibilidade ao desenvolvimento de retinopatia (p=0,0020; OR= 0,05333; 95% I.C. 0,007839 - 0,3629). Em pacientes com DM2, a comparação entre gêneros evidenciou maior frequência do genótipo classe III : classe III em mulheres. E, em relação ao DMG, os genótipos de classe I : classe I e classe I : classe III estavam associados ao menor nível de glicose no plasma sanguíneo em relação as pacientes que exibiam o genótipo classe III : classe III. Esse é o primeiro estudo de associação do polimorfismo INS-VNTR comparando as três principais classes clínicas de DM oriundas de uma mesma amostra geográfica, sendo evidenciado um perfil genotípico padrão de susceptibilidade de acordo com o tipo de DM. / Diabetes mellitus (DM) is defined as a metabolic disorder characterized by hyperglycemia caused by impaired insulin secretion, insulin activity or both. It is classified into four clinical classes i) type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM), ii) type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), iii) gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), iv) other specific types. Among the genes known to influence the mechanism of production and release of insulin, the insulin gene (INS) has been well characterized in disease susceptibility. The INS promoter has been studied in different worldwide populations due to its ability to modulate expression levels of insulin in the thymus and pancreas, in accordance with the type of diabetes. The major polymorphic site is located 596bp upstream from the translation initiation site of the INS gene and it is structured into minisatellite alleles (ACAGGGGTGTGGGG). The shorter class I alleles (30 60 repeats) confers predisposition to DM1 and the longer class III (120 170 repeats) confers protection to DM1; however, the latter allele has also shown to be correlated with DM2, obesity in children and juvenile individuals, and increased cardiovascular risks. This study aims to analyze the association of a polymorphic site at promoter region of the INS gene with diabetes phenotypes, with the purpose of evaluating this region as a possible genetic marker of the disease, and the possible influence on demographic, clinical and laboratory features in a sample of the urban Brazilian population. We analyzed 189 T1DM patients, 116 T2DM patients, 68 GDM patients and 339 healthy individuals from the region of Ribeirão Preto, SP. DNA extraction was performed using a salting-out procedure, followed by amplification and restriction enzyme digestion of the fragment relating to INS gene promoter, which contains another polymorphism, -23HphI, which is in perfect linkage disequilibrium (r2 1) with the INS-VNTR, making it an useful genetic marker. We observed that the class I allele and class I : class I genotype are associated with predisposition to T1DM, whereas, class III allele, predominantly in homozygosity, is associated to T1DM protection. In relation to T2DM, the class I : class III genotype has been associated with susceptibility to disease. Finally, no genotype was correlated with GDM. Data stratification according to demographical, clinical and laboratory variables, indicated that gender, skin color seemed to influence the frequency of the INS-VNTR polymorphism; i. e., the class I : class I genotype was more frequent in male T1DM patients. On the other hand, the presence of the class III : class III genotype was associated with susceptibility the development of retinopathy (p=0,0020; OR= 0,05333; 95% I.C. 0,007839 - 0,3629). In T2DM patients, a trend association was observed between the class III : class III genotype with female diabetic patients. In relation to GDM, the genotypes class I : class I and class I : class III were associated with decreased glucose levels in relation to patients exhibiting the class III : class III genotype. This is the first study of the INS-VNTR polymorphism encompassing the major types if DM patients from the same geographical region, which showed a differential pattern of susceptibility according to the underlying type of DM.

O diabetes mellitus tipo 1 (DM1) tem etiologia autoimune, enquanto o diabetes mellitus tipo 2 (DM2) e o diabetes mellitus gestacional (DMG) são considerados como distúrbios metabólicos. Neste trabalho, foi realizada análise do transcriptoma das células mononucleares do sangue periférico (do inglês, peripheral mononuclear blood cells - PBMCs), obtidas de pacientes com DM1, DM2 e DMG, realizando análises por module maps a fim de comparar características patogênicas e aspectos gerais do tratamento com anotações disponíveis de genes modulados, tais como: a) análises disponíveis a partir de estudos de associação em larga escala (do inglês genome-wide association studies GWAS); b) genes associados ao diabetes em estudos clássicos de ligação disponíveis em bancos de dados públicos; c) perfis de expressão de células imunológicas fornecidos pelo grupo ImmGen (Immunological Project). Foram feitos microarrays do transcriptoma total da plataforma Agilent (Whole genome onecolor Agilent 4x44k) para 56 pacientes (19 DM1, 20 DM2 e 17 DMG). Para a compreensão dos resultados foram aplicados filtros não-informativos e as listas de genes diferencialmente expressos foram obtidas por análise de partição e análise estatística não-paramétrica (rank products), respectivamente. Posteriormente, análises de enriquecimento funcional foram feitas pelo DAVID e os module maps construídos usando a ferramenta Genomica. As análises funcionais contribuíram para discriminar os pacientes a partir de genes envolvidos na inflamação, em especial DM1 e DMG. Os module maps de genes diferencialmente expressos revelaram: a) genes modulados exibiram perfis de transcrição típicos de macrófagos e células dendríticas, b) genes modulados foram associados com genes previamente descritos como genes de complicação ao diabetes a partir de estudos de ligação e de meta-análises; c) a duração da doença, obesidade, número de gestações, níveis de glicose sérica e uso de medicações, tais como metformina, influenciaram a expressão gênica em pelo menos um tipo de diabetes. Esse é o primeiro estudo de module maps mostrando a influência de padrões epidemiológicos, clínicos, laboratoriais, imunopatogênicos e de tratamento na modulação dos perfis transcricionais em pacientes com os três tipos clássicos de diabetes: DM1, DM2 e DMG. / Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune disease while type 2 (T2D) and gestational diabetes (GDM) are considered as metabolic disturbances. We performed a transcriptome analysis of peripheral mononuclear blood cells obtained from T1D, T2D and GDM patients, and we took advantage of the module map approach to compare pathogenic and treatment features of our patient series with available annotation of modulated genes from i) genome-wide association studies; ii) genes provided by diabetes meta-analysis in public databases, iii) immune cell gene expression profiles provided by the ImmGen project. Whole genome one-color Agilent 4x44k microarray was performed for 56 (19 T1D, 20 T2D, 17 GDM) patients. Noninformative filtered and differentially expressed genes were obtained by partitioning and rank product analysis, respectively. Functional analyses were carried out using the DAVID software and module maps were constructed using the Genomica tool. Functional analyses contributed to discriminate patients on the basis of genes involved in inflammation, primarily for T1D and GDM. Module maps of differentially expressed genes revealed that: i) modulated genes exhibited transcription profiles typical of macrophage and dendritic cells, ii) modulated genes were associated with previously reported diabetes complication genes disclosed by association and meta-analysis studies, iii) disease duration, obesity, number of gestations, glucose serum levels and the use of medications, such as metformin, influenced gene expression profiles in at least one type of diabetes. This is the first module map study to show the influence of epidemiological, clinical, laboratory, immunopathogenic and treatment features on the modulation of the transcription profiles of T1D, T2D and GDM patients.

Introdução e objetivos – A finalidade prioritária no tratamento do diabetes mellitus gestacional (DMG) é alcançar níveis de glicemia materna tão próximos da normalidade quanto possível, a fim de reduzir os efeitos adversos associados à hiperglicemia na gestação. A auto verificação da glicemia capilar (perfil glicêmico) é o método mais usado para a monitorização do controle metabólico na gestação complicada por diabetes. Nosso objetivo foi analisar as associações entre os perfis glicêmicos maternos com os principais desfechos da gestação numa população de mulheres com DMG acompanhadas em ambulatório de pré-natal especializado em hospital universitário no sul do Brasil, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA). Desenho e metodotologia – conduzimos um estudo de coorte prospectiva de gestantes referidas da rede de atenção primária de saúde pública para tratamento do DMG no HCPA, acompanhadas do diagnóstico ao parto. Pesquisamos associações entre os resultados dos perfis glicêmicos com o peso de nascimento e com o risco de recém-nascidos grandes para idade gestacional e de desfechos adversos perinatais. Resultados – acompanhamos 440 mulheres com DMG. A média do índice de massa corporal (IMC) foi 33.3kg/m2. 351 bebês (79.8%) mostraram peso adequado à idade gestacional no nascimento. As médias de glicemia nos perfis pré e pósprandiais aumentaram com o avanço na categoria de peso nascimento. Três ou mais perfis glicêmicos anormais foram o fator de risco mais robusto para o nascimento de bebês grandes (OR 3.15 1.51-6.55) e para o desenvolvimento de desfechos adversos perinatais (OR 2.28 1.59-3.29). O ganho de peso materno durante o tratamento associou-se ao risco de recém-nascido grande para idade gestacional, assim como o IMC pré-gestacional, esse último também fator de risco independente para eventos perinatais adversos. Conclusão – perfis glicêmicos anormais em mais de 2 ocasiões foram o fator de risco mais relacionado ao nascimento de um bebê grande para a idade gestacional e para o desenvolvimento de complicações neonatais. Efeito benéfico do tratamento do DMG, guiado pelos perfis glicêmicos, foi a maioria de recém-nascidos com peso adequado à idade gestacional nessa coorte, apesar da incidência de desfechos perinatais adversos não ter sido diferente entre as categorias de peso fetal de nascimento. / Background and objective – a priority target in the treatment of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is attaining maternal glucose levels as close as possible to euglycemia, in order to decrease the adverse outcomes linked to hyperglycemia. Self-performed capillary glucose (glycemic profile) is the most widely used method for metabolic monitoring in pregnancy complicated by diabetes. We intended to analyze the associations of maternal glycemic profile to main pregnancy outcomes in a population of GDM women treated in a specialized prenatal clinic at a university hospital in South Brazil, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA). Research design and methodology – we conducted a prospective cohort study of pregnant women, referred from public primary health care for treatment of GDM at HCPA, between 2008 and 2015. We searched associations of glycemic profiles to birth weight, large for gestational age newborn and adverse neonatal outcomes. Results – we followed 440 GDM women from diagnosis to delivery. Mean prepregnancy body mass index (BMI) was 33.3kg/m2; 351 babies (79.8%) had appropriate birth weight for gestational age. Mean glucose in pre-prandial and postprandial profiles increased with raising birth weight category. Three or more abnormal glycemic profiles showed the strongest association to a large baby (OR 3.15 1.51-6.55) and to a composite of adverse neonatal outcomes (OR 2.28 1.59- 3.29). Gestational weight gain in the course of treatment was associated to large babies, as pre-pregnancy BMI, the latter also an independent risk factor for adverse neonatal outcome. Conclusion – abnormal maternal glycemic profiles in more than two occasions were the stronger risk factor for delivering a large baby and for developing neonatal complications. A beneficial effect of GDM treatment, guided by glycemic profiles, was that most of our newborns had birth weight appropriate for gestational age, although incidence of adverse neonatal outcomes had been no different across birth weight categories.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Umeå : Umeå universitet, 2009. / Härtill 4 uppsatser. Även tryckt utgåva.

In Sweden, there is currently no consensus addressing the screening, diagnostics and treatment of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). In addition, there is little knowledge on the impact of GDM on the daily life of pregnant women and the experiences of health care professionals providing maternal health care to women with GDM. Using different perspectives, this thesis examines the experiences of GDM and the performance of screening for GDM in a regional context in Sweden. The studies used qualitative and quantitative methods. In the qualitative studies, grounded theory was applied in two studies and qualitative content analysis in one study. In the quantitative study, a combination of questionnaire data and data from medical records of pregnancy and birth were processed. Surprisingly, screening for GDM was reduced despite local clinical guidelines stipulating the risk factors indicating an OGTT. Furthermore, the prevalence of the risk factors for GDM in the population investigated was almost doubled compared to previous Swedish studies. Pregnant women developing risk factors for GDM during pregnancy were found to be at substantially increased risk of giving birth to an infant with macrosomia. The experiences of pregnant women with GDM revealed that being diagnosed with and living with GDM during pregnancy might be understood as a process ‘from stun to gradual balance’. The experience comprised both negative and positive dimensions. Despite the challenges, the inconveniences and the changes involved, gradually adapting to an altered lifestyle and finding their balance in daily life was ‘the prize’ the women ‘were willing to pay’ to secure optimal maternal and foetal health. The experiences of midwives comprised managing conflicting demands providing antenatal care to pregnant women diagnosed with GDM. Most midwives felt the obligation to control and monitor the complicated pregnancy, to initiate and motivate the recommended changes in life style together with providing an empowering and caring relation with the women. These assignments disclosed complex conflicting situations and the midwives appeared to choose strategy for managing the situation depending on their perception of the circumstances. The experiences of the obstetricians were understood as ‘dealing with ambiguity’. The ambiguity permeated all aspects of working as an obstetrician within the maternal health care counselling women with GDM: the role of the obstetrician, the context of the organization, balancing the multifaceted interests of the maternal and foetal conditions and the lack of consensus, recommendations and evidence-based knowledge.   The studies revealed the complexity of the situation for the affected pregnant women as well as for the health care professionals providing antenatal care to women diagnosed with GDM. Furthermore, the performance of screening of GDM in pregnant women with risk factors for GDM was insufficient in the investigated region. The findings in this thesis may be useful to increase knowledge of the experiences of pregnant women living with or managing GDM. The findings may also be useful when planning for improvements of maternal health care directed to pregnant women diagnosed with GDM during pregnancy.