Dendritic cells (DCs) are promising mediators of anti-tumour immune responses. Unfortunately, a major hindrance to the development of highly effective DC vaccines is their short lifespan. Tumour antigen presentation may also not be optimal. We hypothesize that the introduction of exogenous survival factors (SFs) would prolong DC longevity and that modulation of TAA glycosylation will improve antigen presentation. To this end, we have constructed bicistronic lentivectors (LVs) encoding the xeno Tumour-Associated-Antigen (TAA), rHER-2/neu, and one of five candidate SFs. We demonstrated that our LVs can effectively protect transduced DCs from apoptosis when subjected to apoptosis-inducing conditions. TAA glycosylation has been proposed to obstruct the processing and presentation of peptides on MHC molecules. To address this second issue, we have engineered a LV that encodes a partially deglycosylated rHER-2/neu. Overall, we have generated the tools to alter intrinsic DC properties, which we believe will be integral to improving DC vaccine efficacy.

Dendritic cells (DCs) are promising mediators of anti-tumour immune responses. Unfortunately, a major hindrance to the development of highly effective DC vaccines is their short lifespan. Tumour antigen presentation may also not be optimal. We hypothesize that the introduction of exogenous survival factors (SFs) would prolong DC longevity and that modulation of TAA glycosylation will improve antigen presentation. To this end, we have constructed bicistronic lentivectors (LVs) encoding the xeno Tumour-Associated-Antigen (TAA), rHER-2/neu, and one of five candidate SFs. We demonstrated that our LVs can effectively protect transduced DCs from apoptosis when subjected to apoptosis-inducing conditions. TAA glycosylation has been proposed to obstruct the processing and presentation of peptides on MHC molecules. To address this second issue, we have engineered a LV that encodes a partially deglycosylated rHER-2/neu. Overall, we have generated the tools to alter intrinsic DC properties, which we believe will be integral to improving DC vaccine efficacy.

La régulation de la transcription des gènes par les récepteurs des estrogènes ERα et ERβ joue un rôle important dans la croissance cellulaire et dans le développement du cancer du sein. Une augmentation de l’expression de CXCR4 et de son ligand SDF-1/CXCL12 corrèle avec un phénotype plus agressif du cancer du sein. Ici, nous démontrons un mécanisme de boucle de régulation positive entre la signalisation de CXCR4/SDF-1 et l’activité transcriptionnelle des ERs dans des cellules cancéreuses mammaires. L’activité transcriptionnelle de ER et l’expression de gènes cibles de ER, dont SDF-1 lui-même, sont augmentées dans la lignée cancéreuse mammaire MCF-7 en réponse à SDF-1. Ces effets sont bloqués par l’anti-estrogène fulvestrant et par la délétion de CXCR4. Par ailleurs, l’expression des gènes et la prolifération des cellules cancéreuses mammaires MCF-7 en réponse à l’estrogène sont altérées par l’inhibition de CXCR4. La signalisation par les facteurs de croissance joue un rôle important dans le cancer du sein. La surexpression et la dérégulation de la signalisation par le récepteur à activité tyrosine kinase ErbB2 corrèlent avec un phénotype tumoral mammaire plus agressif et un moins bon pronostic. Cependant, comment la signalisation de ErbB2 et de CXCR4 sont fonctionnellement reliées dans la régulation de la réponse de ER dans les cellules cancéreuses mammaires n’est pas connue. Nous démontrons ici que CXCR4 régule négativement l’expression protéique de ErbB2 et de son partenaire d’interaction ErbB3 ainsi que la phosphorylation de ErbB2. CXCR4 altère l’activation de la voie PI3-K/Akt par le dimère ErbB2/ErbB3 en réponse à héréguline alors qu’en présence de SDF-1, les niveaux d’activation sont récupérés. Nous avons trouvé que héréguline-β promouvoit la phosphorylation de la sérine 339 de CXCR4, un site important pour l’internalisation et la signalisation du récepteur. De plus, le recrutement de ErbB2 à CXCR4 est favorisé par ErbB3 et héréguline-β. L’activité transcriptionnelle ainsi que l’expression des gènes cibles de ER en réponse à l’héréguline sont relevées avec l’expression de CXCR4 et partiellement récupérées avec l’addition de SDF-1. Ces résultats démontrent que le recrutement de CXCR4 à ErbB2 altère la signalisation médiée par ErbB2/ErbB3 ainsi que l’activité hormonale de ER dans des cellules cancéreuses mammaires. Nous travaux ont permis d’identifier et de caractériser l’impact de la signalisation médiée par des récepteurs membranaires sur la réponse transcriptionnelle de ER dans des cellules cancéreuses mammaires. La signalisation membranaire est un facteur pouvant contribuer à la résistance aux thérapies endocriniennes et donc cibler les récepteurs impliqués s’avèrerait utile pour améliorer les traitements existants et mettre au point de nouvelles approches. / Induction of estrogen-regulated gene transcription by estrogen receptors ERα and ERβ plays an important role in breast cancer development and growth. High expression of the chemokine receptor CXCR4 and its ligand CXCL12/SDF-1 has also been correlated with aggressive breast tumor phenotypes. Here, we describe a positive regulatory loop between CXCR4/SDF-1 signaling pathway and ER transcriptional competence in human breast cancer cells. Treatment of breast carcinoma MCF-7 cells with SDF-1 increased ER transcriptional activity and expression of ER target genes, including SDF-1 itself. These effects were blocked by the antiestrogen ICI-182780 and by CXCR4 silencing, and conversely, estrogen-induced gene expression and growth of MCF-7 cells were impaired upon CXCR4 inhibition. Growth factor signaling also plays an important role in breast cancer. Overexpression and deregulated signaling of receptor tyrosine kinase ErbB2 correlate with aggressive breast tumor phenotype and poor outcomes. However, how ErbB2 and CXCR4 signaling is functionally related to regulate ER response in breast cancer cells is not known. Here we show that steady-state levels of ErbB2 and its dimeric partner ErbB3, as well as ErbB2 tyrosine phosphorylation were negatively regulated with the expression of CXCR4. CXCR4 downregulated ErbB2/ErbB3 dimer activation of the PI3-K/Akt pathway in response to ErbB3 ligand heregulin-β, whereas addition of SDF-1 restored activation levels. We found that heregulin-β promoted CXCR4 phosphorylation at serine 339, an important site for CXCR4 internalization and signaling. In addition, ErbB2 recruitment to CXCR4 was enhanced by ErbB3 and heregulin-β. Transcriptional activity and gene expression measurement showed that the hormonal repression of ER was relieved with the expression of CXCR4 and partially recuperated with the addition of SDF-1. Together, these results show that CXCR4 recruitment to ErbB2 alters ErbB2/ErbB3 signaling pathway and downstream regulation of ER hormonal activity in in breast cancer cells. Our work has enabled us to identify and characterize the impact of membrane receptors signaling on ER transcriptionnal response in breast cancer cells. Membrane signaling is one of the factors involved in endocrine therapy resistance and targeting the receptors implicated could be benificial to improve existing treatments and to work on the creation of new ones.

La régulation de la transcription des gènes par les récepteurs des estrogènes ERα et ERβ joue un rôle important dans la croissance cellulaire et dans le développement du cancer du sein. Une augmentation de l’expression de CXCR4 et de son ligand SDF-1/CXCL12 corrèle avec un phénotype plus agressif du cancer du sein. Ici, nous démontrons un mécanisme de boucle de régulation positive entre la signalisation de CXCR4/SDF-1 et l’activité transcriptionnelle des ERs dans des cellules cancéreuses mammaires. L’activité transcriptionnelle de ER et l’expression de gènes cibles de ER, dont SDF-1 lui-même, sont augmentées dans la lignée cancéreuse mammaire MCF-7 en réponse à SDF-1. Ces effets sont bloqués par l’anti-estrogène fulvestrant et par la délétion de CXCR4. Par ailleurs, l’expression des gènes et la prolifération des cellules cancéreuses mammaires MCF-7 en réponse à l’estrogène sont altérées par l’inhibition de CXCR4. La signalisation par les facteurs de croissance joue un rôle important dans le cancer du sein. La surexpression et la dérégulation de la signalisation par le récepteur à activité tyrosine kinase ErbB2 corrèlent avec un phénotype tumoral mammaire plus agressif et un moins bon pronostic. Cependant, comment la signalisation de ErbB2 et de CXCR4 sont fonctionnellement reliées dans la régulation de la réponse de ER dans les cellules cancéreuses mammaires n’est pas connue. Nous démontrons ici que CXCR4 régule négativement l’expression protéique de ErbB2 et de son partenaire d’interaction ErbB3 ainsi que la phosphorylation de ErbB2. CXCR4 altère l’activation de la voie PI3-K/Akt par le dimère ErbB2/ErbB3 en réponse à héréguline alors qu’en présence de SDF-1, les niveaux d’activation sont récupérés. Nous avons trouvé que héréguline-β promouvoit la phosphorylation de la sérine 339 de CXCR4, un site important pour l’internalisation et la signalisation du récepteur. De plus, le recrutement de ErbB2 à CXCR4 est favorisé par ErbB3 et héréguline-β. L’activité transcriptionnelle ainsi que l’expression des gènes cibles de ER en réponse à l’héréguline sont relevées avec l’expression de CXCR4 et partiellement récupérées avec l’addition de SDF-1. Ces résultats démontrent que le recrutement de CXCR4 à ErbB2 altère la signalisation médiée par ErbB2/ErbB3 ainsi que l’activité hormonale de ER dans des cellules cancéreuses mammaires. Nous travaux ont permis d’identifier et de caractériser l’impact de la signalisation médiée par des récepteurs membranaires sur la réponse transcriptionnelle de ER dans des cellules cancéreuses mammaires. La signalisation membranaire est un facteur pouvant contribuer à la résistance aux thérapies endocriniennes et donc cibler les récepteurs impliqués s’avèrerait utile pour améliorer les traitements existants et mettre au point de nouvelles approches. / Induction of estrogen-regulated gene transcription by estrogen receptors ERα and ERβ plays an important role in breast cancer development and growth. High expression of the chemokine receptor CXCR4 and its ligand CXCL12/SDF-1 has also been correlated with aggressive breast tumor phenotypes. Here, we describe a positive regulatory loop between CXCR4/SDF-1 signaling pathway and ER transcriptional competence in human breast cancer cells. Treatment of breast carcinoma MCF-7 cells with SDF-1 increased ER transcriptional activity and expression of ER target genes, including SDF-1 itself. These effects were blocked by the antiestrogen ICI-182780 and by CXCR4 silencing, and conversely, estrogen-induced gene expression and growth of MCF-7 cells were impaired upon CXCR4 inhibition. Growth factor signaling also plays an important role in breast cancer. Overexpression and deregulated signaling of receptor tyrosine kinase ErbB2 correlate with aggressive breast tumor phenotype and poor outcomes. However, how ErbB2 and CXCR4 signaling is functionally related to regulate ER response in breast cancer cells is not known. Here we show that steady-state levels of ErbB2 and its dimeric partner ErbB3, as well as ErbB2 tyrosine phosphorylation were negatively regulated with the expression of CXCR4. CXCR4 downregulated ErbB2/ErbB3 dimer activation of the PI3-K/Akt pathway in response to ErbB3 ligand heregulin-β, whereas addition of SDF-1 restored activation levels. We found that heregulin-β promoted CXCR4 phosphorylation at serine 339, an important site for CXCR4 internalization and signaling. In addition, ErbB2 recruitment to CXCR4 was enhanced by ErbB3 and heregulin-β. Transcriptional activity and gene expression measurement showed that the hormonal repression of ER was relieved with the expression of CXCR4 and partially recuperated with the addition of SDF-1. Together, these results show that CXCR4 recruitment to ErbB2 alters ErbB2/ErbB3 signaling pathway and downstream regulation of ER hormonal activity in in breast cancer cells. Our work has enabled us to identify and characterize the impact of membrane receptors signaling on ER transcriptionnal response in breast cancer cells. Membrane signaling is one of the factors involved in endocrine therapy resistance and targeting the receptors implicated could be benificial to improve existing treatments and to work on the creation of new ones.

In this study, we have explored the combination of a novel Purine Nucleoside Phosphorylase mediated Gene-Directed Enzyme Prodrug Therapy (PNP-GDEPT) with chemotherapeutics, Taxotere and/or Carboplatin to target prostate and ovarian cancer (PC & OC). PNP converts the prodrug (Fludarabine-phosphate) to a toxic purine, 2-fluoroadenine (2FA) that inhibits RNA/DNA synthesis. Taxotere is active against late stage PC whilst carboplatin is first line therapy for OC. Neither modality is adequately effective. We expect that a combination will target heterogeneity via cytotoxicity to diverse cancer cell populations leading to effective synergies, which may improve efficacy and quality of life. For PC, Synergy between Ad-PNP-GDEPT and Taxotere were assessed in vitro and in vivo. Cell killing effects of combination led to significant synergistic killing of human PC-3 & murine RM1 PC cells accompanied by enhanced apoptosis. A lower individual dose (by up to 8 fold) led to enhanced efficacy. In vivo, the combination regimen given at the suboptimal doses led to reduction in local tumour (PC-3 & RM1) growth in nude and in C57BL/6 mice, respectively. A significant reduction in lung RM1 colony numbers indicated enhanced systemic efficacy. Combination treated mice also displayed significantly improved survival (25 days vs 15 days for control mice). Importantly, the condition of combination treated mice (e.g. weight loss) was better than those given individual treatments. The possible involvement of the immune system in this enhanced effect is under investigation. For OC, three-way synergy between Ad-PNP-GDEPT, Taxotere and carboplatin was effectively demonstrated in SKOV-3 and OVCAR-3 cells. This was significantly greater than bimodal or individual treatments. A 10-50 fold dose reduction of individual treatments was effective when combined, accompanied by enhanced apoptosis. Western-blotting analyses revealed a shift in the expression of anti-apoptotic and proapoptotic proteins upon treatment with various combinations. This is the first demonstration of synergy between these modalities.

Παρά τις προόδους των κλασικών θεραπευτικών στρατηγικών για τον καρκίνο, η μεγάλη πλειοψηφία των ασθενών υποτροπιάζει και καταλήγει. Η ανάγκη για την αντιμετώπιση της νόσου με εναλλακτικό τρόπο οδήγησε στην ανάπτυξη ανοσοθεραπευτικών μεθόδων. Η ιδέα της ανοσοθεραπείας του καρκίνου έγινε γνωστή στα τέλη του δέκατου ένατου αιώνα, όταν ο William Coley χρησιμοποίησε ζωντανά στελέχη του πυογενούς βακτηρίου Streptococcus erysipelas με σκοπό τη δημιουργία γενικευμένης ανοσολογικής απάντησης, μέρος της οποίας να κατευθυνθεί ενάντια σε όγκους σαρκώματος. Οι σποραδικές θετικές αποκρίσεις που παρατήρησε οφείλονταν κατά πάσα πιθανότητα σε ενίσχυση της ανοσολογικής απάντησης από τις φλεγμονώδεις αντιδράσεις που προκάλεσαν τα βακτήρια. Για να επαχθεί όμως ειδική ανοσολογική απάντηση ενάντια σε όγκους απαιτείται να χαρακτηριστούν στα καρκινικά κύτταρα συγκεκριμένα αντιγόνα, ώστε να δύναται το ανοσολογικό σύστημα να τα αναγνωρίσει ως στόχους. Συνεπώς, το πρώτο βήμα στην προσπάθεια για ανοσοθεραπεία του καρκίνου είναι η απομόνωση αντιγόνων που εκφράζουν τα καρκινικά κύτταρα, τα οποία κατά προτίμηση να μην εκφράζονται από τους φυσιολογικούς ιστούς ώστε να αποφευχθεί η αυτοάνοση απάντηση. Η ταυτοποίηση ογκοειδικών αντιγόνων, τα οποία αναγνωρίζονται από τα Τ λεμφοκύτταρα, έδωσε ιδιαίτερη ώθηση στην ανάπτυξη της κατευθυνόμενης από τα Τ κύτταρα ανοσολογικής απάντησης, στο επίπεδο τόσο της έρευνας της ανοσολογίας του καρκίνου, όσο και της κλινικής ανοσοθεραπευτικής εφαρμογής και έθεσε τις βάσεις για τη χρησιμοποίηση πεπτιδικών εμβολίων στην ανοσοθεραπεία του καρκίνου. Από την πληθώρα των γνωστών καρκινικών αντιγόνων, έχουν ταυτοποιηθεί κατά κύριο λόγο επίτοποι ικανοί να συνδεθούν με μόρια του μείζονος συμπλέγματος ιστοσυμβατότητας (MHC) τάξης Ι και συνεπώς να επάγουν την ενεργοποίηση των CD8+ T κυττάρων, δεδομένου ότι οι περισσότεροι όγκοι είναι θετικοί ως προς τα μόρια MHC τάξης Ι, αλλά αρνητικοί ως προς τα μόρια MHC τάξης ΙΙ. Επιπρόσθετα, τα CD8+ Τ κύτταρα μπορούν να καταστρέφουν τα καρκινικά κύτταρα απευθείας, μέσω της αναγνώρισης του συμπλόκου MHC τάξης Ι-πεπτιδίου που εκφράζεται στην επιφάνεια του όγκου. Τα τελευταία χρόνια, δεδομένης της αναγνώρισης του κεντρικού ρόλου των CD4+ Τ λεμφοκυττάρων στην έναρξη, οργάνωση και διατήρηση της ανοσολογικής απάντησης, έχουν αναγνωριστεί και αρκετοί επίτοποι που αναγνωρίζονται από μόρια MHC τάξης ΙΙ. Πρόσφατες κλινικές μελέτες και προκλινικά μοντέλα έδειξαν ότι ο εμβολιασμός με επιτόπους που δύνανται να συνδεθούν με μόρια MHC τάξης ΙΙ, οι οποίοι εμπεριέχουν αλληλουχίες σύνδεσης για τα μόρια MHC τάξης Ι, είναι αποτελεσματικοί στην ταυτόχρονη ανάπτυξη βοηθητικών και κυτταροτοξικών Τ λεμφοκυττάρων με μακρά διάρκεια ζωής in vivo. Από τα γνωστά καρκινικά αντιγόνα, η πρωτεΐνη HER-2/neu παρουσιάζει το πλεονέκτημα της υπερέκφρασης σε ποικίλους τύπους καρκίνου, ενώ οι ασθενείς των οποίων όγκοι την υπερεκφράζουν παρουσιάζουν προϋπάρχουσα ανοσία ενάντια σε πεπτίδια αυτής. Η αυξημένη έκφρασή της στα καρκινικά κύτταρα και το γεγονός ότι πρόκειται για διαμεμβρανική πρωτεΐνη την καθιστούν στόχο για ανοσοθεραπευτικές προσεγγίσεις που περιλαμβάνουν τόσο κυτταρική όσο και χυμική ανοσία. Κλινικές έρευνες με χρήση πεπτιδίων της HER-2/neu έχουν δείξει την πρόκληση ανοσολογικής απάντησης στην πλειονότητα των ασθενών. Παρόλα αυτά, οι μεταστατικοί τύποι καρκίνου που υπερεκφράζουν τη συγκεκριμένη πρωτεΐνη παραμένουν μη θεραπεύσιμοι. Συνεπώς, υπάρχει άμεση ανάγκη για νέες θεραπευτικές προσεγγίσεις και στο σημείο αυτό η διερεύνηση των πιο ανοσογονικών τμημάτων της αλληλουχίας της πρωτεΐνης HER-2/neu, καθώς και της αντίδρασης των ασθενών σε αυτά, αποτελούν στόχο για ειδικές νέες αντικαρκινικές θεραπείες. O εγκλεισμός του αντιγόνου σε μικροσφαίρες πολυ-γαλακτικού-γλυκολικού οξέος (PLGA) έχει δειχθεί ότι επάγει ισχυρή και παρατεταμένη ανοσοαπόκριση. Μέχρι σήμερα, δεν φαίνεται να έχει αναφερθεί μελέτη στην οποία να αναλύεται η επίδραση των χαρακτηριστικών του PLGA συμπολυμερούς και του σχήματος ανοσοποίησης στον τύπο της λαμβανόμενης ανοσοαπόκρισης μετά την χορήγηση PLGA μικροσφαιρών του αντιγόνου in vivo. Στην παρούσα μελέτη διερευνήθηκε ο τύπος της ανοσοαπόκρισης που λαμβάνεται in vivo μετά την χορήγηση πεπτιδίων της HER-2/neu (πρότυπα αντιγόνα) συνδεμένων σε πολυ-γαλακτικού οξέος (PLA) και PLGA μικροσφαίρες. Τα πρότυπα αντιγόνα ήταν δύο: * το πεπτίδιο GSPYVSRLLGICLTSTVQLVQL, που αντιστοιχεί στην περιοχή 778-799 της ογκοπρωτεΐνης HER-2/neu. Η πεπτιδική αυτή ακολουθία περιλαμβάνει τον κυτταροτοξικό επίτοπο CLTSTVQLV (789-797) σε συνδυασμό με τον T βοηθητικό (Th) επίτοπο GSPYVSRLLGICL (778-790) της συγκεκριμένης ογκοπρωτεΐνης. * καθώς και το πεπτίδιο CLTSTVQLV (789-797), δηλαδή μόνο ο κυτταροτοξικός (CTL) επίτοπος. Ως πειραματόζωα στην συγκεκριμένη περίπτωση χρησιμοποιήθηκαν HHD διαγονιδιακοί μύες, οι οποίοι εκφράζουν ανθρώπινα HLA-A2.1 μόρια ιστοσυμβατότητας, δεδομένου ότι η ακολουθία του πεπτιδίου που έχει επιλεγεί προέρχεται από την ανθρώπινη HER-2/neu. Η μετατροπή της ανοσοαπόκρισης Th2 τύπου, εναντίον διαλυτών αντιγόνων που εκφράζονται σε καρκινικούς όγκους, σε Τh1 τύπο ανοσοαπόκρισης είναι σημαντική στην ανοσοθεραπεία του καρκίνου. Η δημιουργία αντιγονο-ειδικών CD8+ κυτταροτοξικών λεμφοκυττάρων, σε συνέργεια με τα αντίστοιχα βοηθητικά Τ (CD4+) λεμφοκύτταρα, πιστεύεται ότι θα οδηγήσουν στην απόρριψη του όγκου ή στην επιβράδυνση της ανάπτυξης αυτού. Η ταυτοποίηση του τύπου της ανοσοαπόκρισης έγινε με την ανάπτυξη ανοσοαναλυτικών τεχνικών για την μέτρηση των ολικών ειδικών ανοσοσφαιρινών IgG, των ισοτύπων αυτών (IgG1 και IgG2a). Επίσης προσδιορίσθηκε ο τύπος της ανοσοαπόκρισης σε κυτταρικό επίπεδο με την ανάπτυξη τεχνικών μέτρησης της ικανότητας του πολλαπλασιασμού των λεμφοκυττάρων και με μέτρηση των κυτοκινών, κυρίως σε υπερκείμενα καλλιεργειών λεμφοκυττάρων, αλλά και στο αίμα. Για την χορήγηση χρησιμοποιήθηκαν μικροσφαίρες PLA και PLGA με φορτωμένο το αντιγόνο με δύο διαφορετικούς τρόπους (προσροφημένο ή απλά αναμεμιγμένο). Η in vivo χορήγηση του πεπτιδικού αντιγόνου που απλά και μόνο αναμίχθηκε με PLA μικροσφαίρες προκάλεσε μια ισχυρή ανοσολογική απόκριση που ήταν συγκρίσιμη με αυτήν που προκλήθηκε από το συνδυασμό του αντιγόνου με πλήρες ανοσοενισχυτικό του Freund (CFA). Επιπλέον, μετά από ανάλυση του προφίλ των κυτοκινών που εκκρίνονται από τα Τ λεμφοκύτταρα των ανοσοποιημένων μυών, αποδείχθηκε ότι ο συνδυασμός του αντιγόνου πεπτιδίων με τις PLA μικροσφαίρες προκάλεσε μια ισχυρή Th1 ανοσολογική απόκριση στο αντιγόνο. Ο χρόνος της επώασης πεπτιδίων με τις μικροσφαίρες πριν από τη χορήγηση δεν είχε επιπτώσεις στην ανοσολογική απόκριση, γεγονός που απλοποιεί περαιτέρω την παραγωγή σε ευρεία κλίμακα αυτού του τύπου εμβολίων. Τα αποτελέσματα που ελήφθησαν από αυτή τη μελέτη δικαιολογούν την περαιτέρω διερεύνηση σε in vivo πειραματικά μοντέλα καρκίνου της δυνατότητας επαγωγής ισχυρής κυτταρικής ανοσοαπόκρισης έναντι των καρκινικών κυττάρων που υπερεκφράζουν την HER-2/neu πρωτεΐνη με απλή ανάμιξη κατάλληλων πεπτιδικών αντιγόνων της HER-2/neu με PLA μικροσφαίρες. / Despite the progress of classic therapeutic strategies developed concerning cancer the greatest number of patients deteriorates and eventually dies. The need to confront this disease in an alternative way has led to the development of new immunotherapeutic methods. The novel idea of cancer immunotherapy was born in the 19th century when William Coley used live live species of bacteria Streptococcus erysipelas in order to induce an overall immune response targeted in part against sarcoma tumors. Occasional positive immune responses that were observed were possibly due to the enhancement of the immune response from the inflammatory reactions caused by the bacteria. In order to induce a special immune response against tumors it is necessary for some specific antigens to be identified at cancer cells. So the first step in the effort to induce immunotherapy is the isolation of antigens expressed by cancer cells that are preferably not expressed at healthy tissues, to prevent autoimmune response. The identification of tumor-specific antigens that are identified by T cells gave a great boost to the development of T-cell-mediated specific immune response, both in research for tumor immunology as in its clinical appliance. That led to the beginning of peptide use in vaccines in cancer immunotherapy. From the plethora of already known cancer antigens, epitopes have been identified as capable of forming complex with MHC (Major Histocompatibility Complex) class I molecules, which consequently induce the activation of CD8+ T cells, given that most tumors are positive for the MHC class I molecules, but negative to MHC class II molecules. Moreover, CD8+ T cells can kill cancer cells directly, through identification of the MHC class I–peptide complex that is expressed on the tumor surface. Recently many epitopes that are recognized by MHC class II molecules have been identified, since it is well known that the CD4+ T cells play an important role in the initiation, organization and maintenance of the immune response. Recent clinical studies and preclinical models have shown that immunization with epitopes that are eminent to form a complex with MHC class II molecules, which comprise amino acid sequences that can connect with MHC class I molecules, are effective in the simultaneous induction of helper and cytotoxic long life T-cell in vivo. Among all known cancer antigens, the HER-2/neu protein demonstrates the advantage of being overexpressed in various types of cancer, while patients whose tumors overexpress the protein exhibit preexisting immunity against its peptides. HER-2/neu is a transmembrane protein that is overexpressed in cancer cells and therefore the perfect target for immunotherapy concerning both cellular and humoral immunity. Clinical studies using HER-2/neu peptides have shown induction of immune response in the majority of patients. However, metastatic tumors overexpressing HER-2/neu protein still remain incurable. As a result, there is ample need for respective new therapeutic strategies and at this point more potent immunogenic sequences of the protein are under investigation, as is the response of patients to those sequences, in hope of creating more specific anticancer therapies. Encapsulation of antigen into poly (lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) microspheres has proven to induce potent and long lasting immune response. Up to date, there is no study analyzing the influence of PLGA polymer characteristics or the immunization scheme, regarding the type of the immune response following the administration of PLGA antigen microspheres in vivo. In the current study, the type of the immune response after in vivo administration of HER-2/neu peptide adsorbed on poly-lactic acid (PLA) and PLGA microspheres is investigated. The model antigens used were the following two: • GSPYVSRLLGICLTSTVQLVQL peptide corresponds to the 779-799 amino acid sequence of the HER-2/neu protein. This amino acid sequence contains the cytotoxic epitope CLTSTVQLV (789-797) in combination with the Th epitope GSPYVSRLLGICL (778-790) of the HER-2/neu protein. • CLTSTVQLV (789-797) peptide, which corresponds to merely the cytotoxic epitope. HHD transgenic mice expressing human HLA-A2.1 histocompatibility molecules were used as subjects, given the fact that the amino acid sequence chosen has derived from the human HER-2/neu protein. Converting the preexisting Th2 type of immune response, against soluble antigens expressed in tumors, to the Th1 type is extremely important in curing cancer. The production of antigen-specific CD8+ cytotoxic lymphocytes with the relevant helper T (CD4+) lymphocytes is believed to trigger the rejection of the tumor or the delay of its development. The type of the immune response was identified with immuno-analytic techniques developed for measuring the total amount of IgG immunoglobulins, and their isotypes (IgG1 and IgG2a). Moreover the type of the immune response has been determined at cellular level using proliferation assay and cytokine measurement assay, usually at cell culture supernatants but also in blood samples. For the peptide administration, PLA and PLGA microspheres were used. The antigen was administered in two different ways, either absorbed or adsorbed (just mixed). The in vivo administration of the peptide antigen just admixed with PLA microspheres induced potent immune response, comparable to that caused by the antigen administration using complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA). Moreover, upon the analysis of the cytokine profile secreted from T lymphocytes of immunized mice, the PLA admixed peptide proved to induce a specific and potent Th1 immune response. The incubation time of the peptide with PLA microspheres had no implications to the immune response, therefore further simplifying future mass production of such vaccine types. The results extracted by this study justify further investigation of the in vivo experimental cancer models for inducing potent cellular immune response against cancer cells that overexpress the HER-2/neu protein by simply mixing the appropriate HER-2/neu peptide antigens with PLA microspheres.

Submitted by Erika Demachki (erikademachki@gmail.com) on 2017-09-04T19:51:03Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Paula Lima Magalhães - 2017.pdf: 3829811 bytes, checksum: fc13a75154ee6a0c6c19e4be5ff0208a (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2017-09-15T14:46:40Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Paula Lima Magalhães - 2017.pdf: 3829811 bytes, checksum: fc13a75154ee6a0c6c19e4be5ff0208a (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-09-15T14:46:40Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Paula Lima Magalhães - 2017.pdf: 3829811 bytes, checksum: fc13a75154ee6a0c6c19e4be5ff0208a (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-07-31 / Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is one of the most common malignant cutaneous tumors in all species, as well as in the human species, ranging from young animals to the elderly. It has development associated with environmental factors such as prolonged exposure to solar rays and epidermal hypopigmentation. According to the literature, 80% of malignancies originate in environmental stimuli, due to exposure to carcinogens. Despite the multifactorial etiology, the search for clarification of the causes and mechanisms of cancer evolution must be incessant, since innumerable neoplasms can be prevented, especially when induced by exogenous factors. The aim of this study was to study canine cutaneous SCC in the light of different histomorphological patterns of the neoplasia, evaluating its immunophenotype response to EGFR and c-erbB2 epidermal growth factor receptors. For that, the cases of canine SCC were analyzed from the archive of the Animal Pathology Sector of the EVZ / UFG from 2006 to 2015. For the epidemiological study, registration information was considered, including breed, sex, age and anatomical location. Regarding the histomorphological evaluation and malignancy criteria, the lesions were classified according to the system recommended by the Müller e Kirk’s. Anti-EGFR (HER1) and anti-c-erbB-2 (HER2) antibodies were used for the immunohistochemical study to better understand the role of these proteins in the mechanisms involved in the genesis, proliferation and evolution of SCC in dogs. Considering the histomorphological and immunophenotypic analyzes, the correlation between its variables was tested, and a correlation was verified between the EGFR immunostaining and the degree of SCC differentiation (r = 0.26, p = 0.02). On the other hand, there was no correlation between c-erbB2 immunostaining and histomorphological differentiation (r = 0.02; p = 0.83). When the correlation between EGFR and c-erbB2 immunoblots was tested, a positive correlation was also observed, but not statistically significant (r = 0.21, p = 0.06). It is concluded that there is a propensity that the increase in EGFR immunoexpression is directly proportional to the degree of SCC differentiation, and that it does not occur with c-erbB2 immunostaining. Also, SCCs in dogs seems to exhibit simultaneous increase of EGF receptor immunostaining. / O carcinoma de células escamosas (CCE) é um dos tumores cutâneos malignos mais comuns em todas as espécies animais, assim como na espécie humana, podendo acometer desde animais jovens a idosos. Tem desenvolvimento associado a fatores ambientais como exposição prolongada aos raios solares e hipopigmentação epidermal. Os estudos revelam que, 80% das neoplasias malignas têm origem em estímulos ambientais, em decorrência a exposição a carcinógenos. Apesar da etiologia multifatorial, a busca pelo esclarecimento das causas e dos mecanismos de evolução do câncer deve ser incessante, pois inúmeras neoplasias podem ser prevenidas, especialmente quando induzidas por fatores exógenos. Assim, este trabalho teve por objetivo estudar o CCE cutâneo canino à luz dos diferentes padrões histomorfológicos da neoplasia, avaliando o seu imunofenótipo quanto aos receptores do fator de crescimento epidérmico EGFR e c-erbB2. Para tal, foram avaliadas os casos de CCE canino provenientes do arquivo do Setor de Patologia Animal da EVZ/UFG no período de 2006 a 2015. Para o estudo epidemiológico foram consideradas as informações de registro, incluindo raça, sexo, idade e localização anatômica. Quanto à avaliação histomorfológica e critérios de malignidade, as lesões foram classificadas de acordo com o sistema preconizado por Müller e Kirk’s. Para o estudo imunoistoquímico foram utilizados os anticorpos anti-EGFR (HER1) e anti-c-erbB-2 (HER2), com o intuito de melhor compreender a participação dessas proteínas nos mecanismos envolvidos na gênese, proliferação e evolução do CCE em cães. Considerando as análises histomorfológica e imunofenotípica foi testada a correlação entre suas variáveis, sendo constatada correlação entre a imunomarcação para EGFR e o grau de diferenciação do CCE (r=0,26; p=0,02). Por outro lado, não houve correlação entre a imunomarcação de c-erbB2 e a diferenciação histomorfológica (r=0,02; p=0,83). Quando testada a correlação entre as imunomarcações de EGFR e c-erbB2, também foi observada correlação positiva, porém sem significância estatística (r=0,21; p=0,06). Conclui-se que há propensão de que o aumento na imunoexpressão de EGFR seja diretamente proporcional ao grau de diferenciação do CCE, sendo que o mesmo não ocorre com a imunomarcação de c-erbB2. Também, os CCE em cães parecem apresentar aumento simultâneo da imunomarcação dos receptores de EGF.

<p>From January, 1988, to December, 1993, 113 patients with FIGO stage IA-IIC epithelial ovarian carcinoma were treated with postoperative radiotherapy. The median follow-up period was 74 months. Tumor recurrences were recorded in 33 cases (30%). The cancer-specific survival rate was 72%. Tumor grade was a significant (P = 0.007) and independent prognostic factor in the multivariate analysis. In a smaller series of 106 patients, a number of prognostic factors (age, FIGO stage, histopathological type, and tumor grade) were studied in relation to regulators of apoptosis (p53, bcl-2, and bax) and growth factor receptors (HER-2/neu and EGFR). Immunohistochemical techniques were used. In a separate series of 103 patients, the DNA content (flow cytometry) and p53 status of the tumors were also studied and related to the same clinicopathological factors. P53 was associated with tumor grade (P = 0.007) and survival status (P = 0.046). In a Cox multivariate analysis, tumor grade (P = 0.0006), bax status (P = 0.020), and EGFR status (P = 0.018) were significant and independent prognostic factors. DNA ploidy of the tumors was strongly associated with tumor grade. </p><p>From January, 1994, to December, 1998, a series of 109 patients with ovarian carcinomas (FIGO IA-IIC) were treated with postoperative adjuvant chemotherapy. The same prognostic factors were studied in this series. The median follow-up was 48 months and the cancer-specific survival rate was 75%. Twenty-five (25%) tumor recurrences were recorded. The most favorable survival rate was seen in patients with tumors negative for p53 and positive for bcl-2 or bax. In a multivariate analysis, tumor grade (P = 0.014) and p53 status (P = 0.020) were independent prognostic factors.</p><p>Clinical, histopathological and biological prognostic factors should be combined in prognostic models to render patient-tailored therapy possible and to define different prognostic groups for future clinical studies of adjuvant therapy in early stage ovarian carcinomas.</p>

From January, 1988, to December, 1993, 113 patients with FIGO stage IA-IIC epithelial ovarian carcinoma were treated with postoperative radiotherapy. The median follow-up period was 74 months. Tumor recurrences were recorded in 33 cases (30%). The cancer-specific survival rate was 72%. Tumor grade was a significant (P = 0.007) and independent prognostic factor in the multivariate analysis. In a smaller series of 106 patients, a number of prognostic factors (age, FIGO stage, histopathological type, and tumor grade) were studied in relation to regulators of apoptosis (p53, bcl-2, and bax) and growth factor receptors (HER-2/neu and EGFR). Immunohistochemical techniques were used. In a separate series of 103 patients, the DNA content (flow cytometry) and p53 status of the tumors were also studied and related to the same clinicopathological factors. P53 was associated with tumor grade (P = 0.007) and survival status (P = 0.046). In a Cox multivariate analysis, tumor grade (P = 0.0006), bax status (P = 0.020), and EGFR status (P = 0.018) were significant and independent prognostic factors. DNA ploidy of the tumors was strongly associated with tumor grade. From January, 1994, to December, 1998, a series of 109 patients with ovarian carcinomas (FIGO IA-IIC) were treated with postoperative adjuvant chemotherapy. The same prognostic factors were studied in this series. The median follow-up was 48 months and the cancer-specific survival rate was 75%. Twenty-five (25%) tumor recurrences were recorded. The most favorable survival rate was seen in patients with tumors negative for p53 and positive for bcl-2 or bax. In a multivariate analysis, tumor grade (P = 0.014) and p53 status (P = 0.020) were independent prognostic factors. Clinical, histopathological and biological prognostic factors should be combined in prognostic models to render patient-tailored therapy possible and to define different prognostic groups for future clinical studies of adjuvant therapy in early stage ovarian carcinomas.

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