La dérégulation de l’expression des microARN peut induire des cancers. De plus, ils jouent un rôle crucial dans la pathogénèse et la survie des virus. L’herpès virus humain de type 8 (HHV-8 ou KSHV) est l’agent étiologique du sarcome de Kaposi et est impliqué dans la génération de lymphomes agressifs de type B. De manière intéressante, le génome ce virus code 12 pré-miARN localisés dans la région de latence et exprimés sur un même pri-miARN. Les miARN du KSHV sont importants pour le maintien de la latence, l’inhibition de l’apoptose ou encore la régulation du cycle cellulaire de l’hôte. Nous nous intéressons à leur expression et leur régulation durant l’infection virale. Nous avons résolu la structure secondaire de l’ARN codant ces miARN afin d’identifier les critères structuraux responsables de leur accumulation différentielle. Nous avons initié une analyse cinétique de la première étape de maturation et enfin nous essayons d’identifier des co-facteurs modulant leur expression. / It is now well known that modulation of microRNAs expression is linked to the development of cancers. Moreover, they play a crucial role in the pathogenesis and the survival of some viruses. Kaposi’s sarcoma associated herpes virus (KSHV) is the etiologic agent of Kaposi’s sarcoma and is involved in human aggressive B lymphomas generation. Its genome encodes 12 precursor miRNAs that are clustered in a latency region and expressed on a single long primary transcript. KSHV miRNAs are important to maintain the virus latency and to regulate or inhibit the host cell cycle or apoptosis, respectively. Therefore, understanding the regulation of KSHV miRNA accumulation is of prime importance. In this respect, we resolved the secondary structure of them iRNA cluster to identify structural criteria responsible of their differential accumulation. In addition, we started to analyse the mechanism of their maturation by kinetics studies. Finally we tried to identify some cofactors of miRNA expression.

“Neglected Rickettsiaceae” (i.e. those harboured by non-hematophagous eukaryotic hosts) display greater phylogenetic variability and more widespread dispersal than pathogenic ones; yet, the knowledge about their actual host range and host shift mechanism is scarce. The present work reports the characterization following the full-cycle rRNA approach (SSU rRNA sequence, specific in situ hybridization, and ultrastructure) of a novel rickettsial bacterium, herewith proposed as 'Candidatus Megaira polyxenophila' gen. nov., sp. nov. We found it in association with four different free-living ciliates (Diophrys oligothrix, Euplotes octocarinatus, Paramecium caudatum, and Spirostomum sp., all belonging to Alveolata, Ciliophora); furthermore it was recently observed as intracellular occurring in Carteria cerasiformis and Pleodorina japonica (Chlorophyceae, Chlorophyta). Phylogenetic analyses demonstrated the belonging of the candidate new genus to the family Rickettsiaceae (Alphaproteobacteria, Rickettsiales) as a sister group of the genus Rickettsia. In situ observations revealed the ability of the candidate new species to colonize either nuclear or cytoplasmic compartments, depending on the host organism. The presence of the same bacterial species within different, evolutionary distant, hosts indicates that 'Candidatus Megaira polyxenophila' recently underwent several distinct host shifts, thus suggesting the existence of horizontal transmission pathways. We consider these findings as indicative of an unexpected spread of rickettsial infections in aquatic communities, possibly by means of trophic interactions, and hence propose a new interpretation of the origin and phylogenetic diversification of rickettsial bacteria.

<p>  </p> <p>Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a complex oncogenic symbiont. The molecular mechanisms governing EBV carcinogenesis remain elusive and the functional interactions between virus and host cells are incompletely defined. Some of the known mechanisms include viral integration into the host genome, expression and mutation(s) of viral genes and the host response to the virus. Despite decades of research there is a lack of effective treatment options for EBV-positive cancer patients underscoring an urgent need to further investigate the mechanisms underlying tumorigenesis as well as explore and develop personalized treatment strategies for patients with EBV-positive cancers. In Chapter 1, I introduce Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV), the two phases of EBV lifecycle and an overview of certain EBV-associated carcinomas. I will also discuss the underlying mechanisms and few current therapeutic strategies against EBV infection. Next, I will discuss some of the preclinical model systems and high-throughput computation techniques that are commonly used by researchers in the field of EBV.  </p> <p>In chapter 2, we have systematically analyzed RNA-sequencing from >1000 patients with 15 different cancer types, comparing virus and host factors of EBV+ to EBV- tissues to reveal novel insights into EBV-positive tumors. First, we observed that EBV preferentially integrates at highly accessible regions of the cancer genome with significant enrichment in super-enhancer architecture. Second, we determined that the expression of twelve EBV transcripts, including LMP1 and LMP2, correlated inversely with EBV reactivation signature. Over-expression of these genes significantly suppressed viral reactivation, consistent with a ‘Virostatic’ function. Third, we identified hundreds of novel frequent missense and nonsense variations in Virostatic genes in cancer samples, and that the variant genes failed to regulate their viral and cellular targets in cancer. Lastly, we were able to dichotomously classify EBV-positive tumors based on patterns of host interferon signature genes and immune checkpoint markers, such as PD-L1 and IDO1. </p> <p>In chapter 3, we probed the lifecycle of EBV on a cell-by-cell basis using single cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) data from six EBV-immortalized lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCL). While the majority of LCLs comprised cells containing EBV in the latent phase of its life cycle, we identified two additional clusters that had distinct expression of both host and viral genes. Both clusters were high expressors of EBV Latent Membrane Protein-1 (LMP1) but differed in their expression of other EBV lytic genes, including glycoprotein gene GP350. We further probed into the transcriptional landscape of these clusters to identify potential regulators which will be discussed in further detail in the chapter. Importantly, I was able to demonstrate enhancing HIF1-a signaling by using Pevonedistat, a compound that stabilized HIF1-a can preferentially induce the transcriptional program specific to one of the three identified clusters. </p> <p>In Chapter 4, I describe some of my recent work. In this project, we have used an intuitive <em>in-silico </em>drug prediction approach to rapidly screen and identify FDA-approved or clinically available compounds that can be repurposed to induce lytic cycle in different EBV+ tumors. Using this strategy, we identified Ciclopirox, an antifungal drug, as a potent inducer of lytic cycle in EBV+ epithelial cancers. We used EBV+ GC cells to determine the effect of Ciclopirox on EBV reactivation as well as identify the underlying mechanisms. In summary, we discovered that reactivation of EBV lytic cycle by Ciclopirox is mediated by multiple pathways, two of the major ones being the HIF1-a and NF-kB pathways. Although, Ciclopirox treatment enhanced the killing effect of antiviral, further investigation is needed to effectively deliver this drug <em>in vivo.</em> Throughout this chapter, I have discussed findings that needs further investigation and proposed necessary experiments. Finally, in Chapter 5 I have summarized my work and described how our work can provide novel insights that can help delineate some of the complexities of host-pathogen interactions in EBV-associated malignancies. </p>

Salmonellen spp. sind invasive, intrazelluläre Pathogene, die in einem membranumhüllten Kompartiment innerhalb der infizierten Wirtszelle überleben. Wie auch andere intrazelluläre Pathogene repliziert Salmonella in dieser intrazellulären Nische, obwohl es anscheinend von sowohl extra- als auch intrazellulären Nährstoffquellen isoliert ist. Wir zeigen hier, dass intrazelluläre Salmonella den Proteinabbau des Wirts ausnutzen, um Aminosäuren in Form von Peptiden zu erhalten. Dieser spezielle, auch als Chaperon-vermittelte Autophagie bekannte, Abbauweg spielt eine Rolle im Transport zytosolischer Proteine zum Abbau im Lysosom. Ein Salmonellenmutant, der nur in Anwesenheit von Peptiden im Medium als Aminosäurenquelle wächst, wies intrazellulär eine Wachstumsrate auf, die der des Wildtyps ähnlich war. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass Peptide intrazellulär für Salmonella zugänglich sind. Wir fanden heraus, dass die Salmonella-enthaltende Vakuole (SCV, Salmonella containing vacuole) die Wirtproteine LAMP-2A und Hsc73, Kernkomponenten von CMA, anzieht, jedoch nicht lysosomale Proteine wie LAMP-2B und LIMP-2. Im Gegensatz zum Salmonellawildtyp zeigte der peptidabhängige Mutantentstamm stark verringertes Wachstum, wenn die Wirtszellen mit CMA-Inhibitoren behandelt wurde. Diese Ergebnisse zeigen einen neuen Mechanismus auf, durch den ein intrazelluläres Pathogen vom membranumhüllten Kompartiment aus Zugriff auf Cytosol der Wirtzelle zur Beschaffung von Nährstoffen hat. Wir schlagen vor, dass diese Ergebnisse eine Erklärung für die Rückfälle von persistenten Salmonellainfektionen liefern können. Des Weitern schlagen wir diesen Mechanismus als moegliches Ziel antibakterieller Therapeutika zur Bekämpfung intrazellulärer Pathogene vor. / Salmonella spp. are invasive, intracellular pathogens which survive and proliferate within a membrane-bound compartment inside infected host cells. Like other intracellular pathogens, Salmonella replicates within this intracellular niche, despite its apparent isolation from both extra- and intracellular sources of nutrients. Here, we show that intracellular Salmonella acquire amino acids in the form of peptides by co-opting the host protein degradation pathway known as chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA) involved in the transport of cytosolic proteins to the lysosome for degradation. A mutant of Salmonella strictly dependent upon peptides in growth media as a source of amino acids, showed intracellular growth similar to the wild-type strain in host cells, indicating intracellular access to peptides. We found that the Salmonella-containing vacuole (SCV) acquires the host cell proteins LAMP-2A and Hsc73, key components of CMA, but excludes lysosomal proteins such as LAMP-2B and LIMP-2. In contrast to wild-type Salmonella, the peptide-dependent mutant strain showed a severe reduction in growth when host cells were treated with inhibitors of CMA.. These results reveal a novel means whereby an intracellular pathogen can access the host cell cytosol to acquire nutrients from within its membrane-bound compartment. We suggest these results may provide an explanation for relapse infections resulting from persistent Salmonella infections, and suggest a possible means of targeting antibacterials against intracellular pathogens.

Les biomolécules exercent leurs fonctions en interagissant avec d'autres molécules. Le recensement de l'ensemble des biomolécules et leurs interactions permet de construire leurs réseaux d'interactions et de les analyser sur le plan structural et fonctionnel par des outils bioinformatiques (BiNGO, DAVID). Cela permet d'identifier les biomolécules clés, de prédire de nouvelles fonctions des protéines et de comprendre et modéliser les mécanismes moléculaires d'un processus biologique ou pathologique donné. Les protéines ou régions intrinsèquement désordonnées, qui possèdent une grande plasticité structurale, sont susceptibles d'interagir avec de nombreux partenaires et d'être importantes dans les réseaux d'interactions. A l'aide du prédicteur IUPred, nous avons dans un premier temps cartographié le désordre intrinsèque des protéines dans le réseau d'interactions de la matrice extracellulaire et dans le réseau extracellulaire des protéoglycanes construits à partir de la base de données MatrixDB développée dans l'équipe. Nous avons montré que les protéines très connectées de ces deux réseaux ne sont pas enrichies en désordre. Les fonctions moléculaires surreprésentées dans le jeu de protéines extracellulaires contenant au moins 50% de désordre intrinsèque sont les interactions avec les facteurs de croissance ou les glycosaminoglycanes. Nous avons étudié un jeu de données d'interactions protéine-héparine comportant 118 valeurs de cinétique et nous avons montré une relation positive entre la vitesse d'association des protéines à l'héparine et le pourcentage de désordre de leurs sites de fixation à l'héparine. Nous avons également étudié les interactions de la matrice extracellulaire avec un pathogène, le parasite Leishmania. Nous avons montré que les protéines sécrétées par les Leishmania ne sont pas enrichies en désordre par rapport au protéome. Nous avons établi une liste de onze protéines parasitaires sécrétées possédant au moins trois motifs d'interaction et susceptibles d'interagir avec l'hôte / Biomolecules perform their functions by interacting with other molecules. The identification of all biomolecules and their interactions is required to build their interaction networks. Their structural and functional analysis with bioinformatics tools (BiNGO, DAVID) allow us to identify the key biomolecules, to predict new protein functions and to understand and model the molecular mechanisms of biological or pathological process. Intrinsically disordered proteins or regions, which are characterized by structural plasticity, may interact with many partners and may play a role in the interaction networks. Using the predictor IUPred we mapped the intrinsic disorder in protein interaction networks of the extracellular matrix and of the proteoglycans constructed from the MatrixDB database developed in the laboratory. We have shown that the highest connected proteins of these two networks are not enriched in disorder. The molecular functions overrepresented in the set of extracellular proteins containing at least 50% of intrinsically disordered residues are interactions with growth factors or glycosaminoglycans. We studied a dataset of heparin-protein interactions including 118 kinetic values and we have shown that the association rate of proteins with heparin is related to the intrinsic disorder of heparin-binding sites. We also studied the interactions of the extracellular matrix with a pathogen, the parasite Leishmania. We have shown that proteins secreted by Leishmania are not enriched in disorder compared to their proteome. We have selected eleven parasite proteins containing at least three interaction motifs, which may interact with the host

<p>A significant development in mass spectrometry instrumentation and software in the past decade has led to its application in solving complex biological problems. One of the emerging areas is Chemical Proteomics that involves design and use of chemical reagents to probe protein functions in ‘a live cell’ environment. Another aspect of Chemical Proteomics is the identification of target proteins of a drug or small molecule. This is assisted by photoreactive groups, which on exposure to UV light, covalently link the target proteins that can be purified by affinity-based enrichment followed by mass-spectrometric identification. This phenomenon of Photoaffinity labeling (PAL) has been widely used in a broad range of applications. Herein, we have designed chemical tools to study Zika endocytosis and phosphoproteomics.</p> <p>Zika virus has attracted the interest of researchers globally, following its outbreak in 2016. While a significant development has been made in understanding the structure and pathogenesis, the actual mechanism of Zika entry into host cells is largely unknown. We designed a chemical probe to tag the live virus, leading to the identification of the virus receptors and other host factors involved in viral entry. We further validated neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM1) as a host protein involved in early phase entry of Zika virus into Vero cells.</p> <p>The second aspect is the development of the DIGE (Difference Gel Electrophoresis) technology for phosphoproteomics. Phosphoproteins are known to be involved in various signaling pathways and implicated in multiple diseased states. We designed chemical reagents composed of titanium (IV) ion, diazirine and a fluorophore, to covalently label the phosphoproteins. Cyanine3 and cyanine5 fluorophores were employed to reveal the difference in phosphorylation between samples for the comparative proteomics. Thus far, we have successfully demonstrated the labeling of standard phosphoproteins in both simple and complex protein mixtures, and the future efforts are towards applying the technology to identify phosphoproteins in a cell lysate.</p>

As Escherichia coli produtoras da toxina Shiga (STEC) são importantes patógenos humanos, causando desde diarréias até a síndrome hemolítica urêmica (SHU). Há diversos sorotipos associados a SHU, tais como O157:H7 e O113:H21. No Brasil o sorotipo O113:H21 ainda não aparece associado a SHU, embora seja frequentemente isolado de carcaças e fezes bovinas. Nosso grupo já investigou comparativamente as redes de coexpressão gênica (RCG) de STEC EH41 (associado à SHU) e Ec472/01 (isolado de fezes bovinas). A análise comparativa do perfil transcricional de EH41 e Ec472/01 revelou que somente EH41 expressa um conjunto de genes que inclui o regulador transcricional dicA. A maioria destes genes está situada em um único módulo transcricional e podem estar associados a fatores de virulência. Assim, este trabalho centrou-se numa abordagem de biologia de sistemas, integrando análises genômica e fenotípica da resposta de enterócitos Caco-2 à EH41 e Ec472/01. A análise genômica baseou-se no estudo temporal de RCG para compreender os mecanismos moleculares envolvidos na patogenicidade desses dois isolados. As alterações fenotípicas ocorridas nas células Caco-2 ao longo da exposição a cada um dos isolados de STEC foram visualizadas através de MEV. A análise genômica mostrou que o mecanismo molecular da resposta de Caco-2 durante a interação com EH41 ou Ec472/01 é claramente distinto. Nas redes do grupo Caco-2/EH41 as alterações topológicas incluíram a perda do status scale free e a sua recuperação, com o estabelecimento de uma nova hierarquia de genes na rede. Esses resultados se enquadram no modelo de redes para transição saúde-doença: a nova rede representa a resposta adaptativa da célula ao patógeno, o que não significa um retorno à normalidade. Já no grupo Caco-2/Ec472 as redes, após a perda do status scale free, não recuperam esse status até o final do período estudado, o que sugere um estado de transição mais prolongado para reorganização da hierarquia da rede. Mais ainda, através da caracterização dos módulos transcricionais, foi possível compreender dinamicamente os mecanismos moleculares envolvidos na resposta diferencial de Caco-2 aos dois isolados aqui estudados. STEC EH41 induz rapidamente a resposta inflamatória e apoptótica a partir da primeira hora de interação enterócito-bactéria. Por outro lado, células Caco-2 em contato com Ec472/01 ativam, a partir de uma hora, a fagocitose e, a partir da segunda hora, expressam moduladores da homeostase imune. A análise fenotípica das células Caco-2 mostrou, de forma nítida, uma maior destruição dos microvilos dos enterócitos em contato com EH41 do que com Ec472/01. Integrando os resultados genômicos e fenotípicos pode-se concluir que EH41 induz em Caco-2 - em comparação com Ec472/01 - maiores e mais rápidas alterações na expressão gênica global, além de uma resposta inflamatória e apoptótica excessiva, levando assim a alterações morfológicas mais pronunciadas nas células Caco-2. Em seu conjunto, esses resultados contribuem para uma melhor compreensão dos mecanismos moleculares envolvidos na patogenicidade das STECs associadas à SHU. Assim, as perspectivas de desenvolvimento deste trabalho deverão incluir a investigação de fatores de virulência e vias moleculares envolvidas na indução das respostas imunes que podem conduzir à SHU / Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) O113:H21 strains are associated with human diarrhea and some of these strains may cause hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS). In Brazil O113:H21 strains are commonly found in cattle but, so far, were not isolated from HUS patients. Previously, our group conducted comparative gene co-expression network (GCN) analyses of two O113:H21 STEC strains: EH41, isolated from a HUS patient in Australia, and Ec472/01, isolated from bovine feces in Brazil. Differential transcriptome profiles for EH41 and Ec472/01 revealed a gene set exclusively expressed in EH41, which includes the dicA putative virulence factor regulator. GCN analysis showed that this set of genes constitutes an EH41 specific transcriptional module which may be associated to virulence factors. Therefore, in the present work a system biology approach was conducted to investigate the differential Caco-2 response - genomic and phenotypic - to EH41 (Caco-2/EH41) or to Ec472/01 (Caco- 2/Ec472) along enterocyte-bacteria interaction. The genomic analysis was based on temporal GCN data in order to gain a better understanding on the molecular mechanisms underlying the capacity to cause HUS. The phenotypic alterations in Caco-2 during enterocyte-bacteria interaction were assessed by scanning electronic microscopy (SEM). The genomic analysis showed that the molecular mechanism of Caco-2 response to EH41 or to Ec472/01 during enterocyte-bacteria interaction is clearly different. The GCN topological analyses for Caco-2/EH41 group revealed loss of the scale-free status after one hour of interaction, persistence of this condition along the second hour and establishment of a new gene hierarchy thereafter. These events resemble the network mechanism of health-disease transition. The new established network represents an adaptive cell response to the pathogen and not the return to a \"normal\" state. Conversely, the networks for Caco-2/Ec472 group showed a slow and progressive loss of the scale-free status without its restoration at the end of the time interval here studied. Through transcriptional module characterization it was possible to reveal the dynamic of the molecular mechanism involved in the Caco-2 differential responses to the STEC isolates. EH41 induces a rapid inflammatory and apoptotic response just after the first hour of enterocyte-bacteria interaction. Instead, the Caco-2 response to Ec472/01 is characterized by phagocytosis activation at the first hour, followed by the expression of immune response modulators after the second hour. SEM phenotypic analysis of Caco-2 cells along enterocyte-bacteria interaction showed more intense microvilli destruction in cells exposed to EH41, when compared to cells exposed to Ec472/01. The integration of genomic and phenotypic data allowed us to conclude that EH41, comparatively to Ec472/01, induces greater and precocious global gene expression alterations in Caco-2, what is related to excessive inflammatory and apoptotic responses. These responses are associated with the pronounced morphological alterations observed by SEM in Caco-2 cells exposed to EH41. Altogether, these results contribute for a better understanding of the molecular mechanism involved in STEC pathogenicity associated to HUS. Therefore, the future perspectives for the development of the present work should include the investigation of virulence factors and molecular pathways involved in the induction of immune responses leading to HUS

Plus de 150 années de recherches sur les Microsporidies ont conduit à une connaissance relativement basique de divers aspect de leur biologie. Malgré cela, peut d’informations existent concernant la génétique et les mécanismes moléculaire des interactions hôte-pathogène qui gouvernent les infections aux Microsporidies.Dans un premier temps, je décris comment détecter, traiter et éradiquer les infections microsporidiales avec Tubulinosema ratisbonensis dans des lignées de Drosophila melanogaster. Jusqu’à présent, les connaissances concernant les défenses de l’hôte chez la drosophile contre les parasites intracellulaire obligatoires restent incomplète due au manque d’un bon modèle d’infection. De ce fait, j’ai développé des modèles d’infection de D. melanogaster par la microsporidie T.ratisbonensis, à la fois en culture cellulaire et drosophiles adultes. Mes travaux sur le modèle d’infection cellulaire englobent des approchent en transcriptomique et métabolomique qui analysent les deux cotées de cette relation hôte-pathogène. En fin, je présente les fonctions biologiques des glycosylphosphatidyl inositoles de Toxoplasma gondii. / More than 150 years of Microsporidia research led to a basic understanding of many aspects of microsporidial biology, yet little is known about the genetic basis and molecular mechanisms of the intimate host-parasite relationship that govern Microsporidia infections.Here, I first report on the detection, prophylaxis, and eradication measures against microsporidial infestations with Tubulinosema ratisbonensis, infecting cultures of Drosophila melanogaster. To date,knowledge about Drosophila host defense against obligate intracellular parasites remained incomplete for lack of good infection models.To this end, I have developed infection models of Drosophila by the microsporidian T. ratisbonensis,both in cell lines and in adults. The work on the cellular infection model encompasses transcriptomics and metabolomics approaches, which aim to attempt both sides of the host-pathogen equation. Finally, I report on the biological roles of glycosylphosphatidyl inositols of Toxoplasma gondii.

As Escherichia coli produtoras da toxina Shiga (STEC) são importantes patógenos humanos, causando desde diarréias até a síndrome hemolítica urêmica (SHU). Há diversos sorotipos associados a SHU, tais como O157:H7 e O113:H21. No Brasil o sorotipo O113:H21 ainda não aparece associado a SHU, embora seja frequentemente isolado de carcaças e fezes bovinas. Nosso grupo já investigou comparativamente as redes de coexpressão gênica (RCG) de STEC EH41 (associado à SHU) e Ec472/01 (isolado de fezes bovinas). A análise comparativa do perfil transcricional de EH41 e Ec472/01 revelou que somente EH41 expressa um conjunto de genes que inclui o regulador transcricional dicA. A maioria destes genes está situada em um único módulo transcricional e podem estar associados a fatores de virulência. Assim, este trabalho centrou-se numa abordagem de biologia de sistemas, integrando análises genômica e fenotípica da resposta de enterócitos Caco-2 à EH41 e Ec472/01. A análise genômica baseou-se no estudo temporal de RCG para compreender os mecanismos moleculares envolvidos na patogenicidade desses dois isolados. As alterações fenotípicas ocorridas nas células Caco-2 ao longo da exposição a cada um dos isolados de STEC foram visualizadas através de MEV. A análise genômica mostrou que o mecanismo molecular da resposta de Caco-2 durante a interação com EH41 ou Ec472/01 é claramente distinto. Nas redes do grupo Caco-2/EH41 as alterações topológicas incluíram a perda do status scale free e a sua recuperação, com o estabelecimento de uma nova hierarquia de genes na rede. Esses resultados se enquadram no modelo de redes para transição saúde-doença: a nova rede representa a resposta adaptativa da célula ao patógeno, o que não significa um retorno à normalidade. Já no grupo Caco-2/Ec472 as redes, após a perda do status scale free, não recuperam esse status até o final do período estudado, o que sugere um estado de transição mais prolongado para reorganização da hierarquia da rede. Mais ainda, através da caracterização dos módulos transcricionais, foi possível compreender dinamicamente os mecanismos moleculares envolvidos na resposta diferencial de Caco-2 aos dois isolados aqui estudados. STEC EH41 induz rapidamente a resposta inflamatória e apoptótica a partir da primeira hora de interação enterócito-bactéria. Por outro lado, células Caco-2 em contato com Ec472/01 ativam, a partir de uma hora, a fagocitose e, a partir da segunda hora, expressam moduladores da homeostase imune. A análise fenotípica das células Caco-2 mostrou, de forma nítida, uma maior destruição dos microvilos dos enterócitos em contato com EH41 do que com Ec472/01. Integrando os resultados genômicos e fenotípicos pode-se concluir que EH41 induz em Caco-2 - em comparação com Ec472/01 - maiores e mais rápidas alterações na expressão gênica global, além de uma resposta inflamatória e apoptótica excessiva, levando assim a alterações morfológicas mais pronunciadas nas células Caco-2. Em seu conjunto, esses resultados contribuem para uma melhor compreensão dos mecanismos moleculares envolvidos na patogenicidade das STECs associadas à SHU. Assim, as perspectivas de desenvolvimento deste trabalho deverão incluir a investigação de fatores de virulência e vias moleculares envolvidas na indução das respostas imunes que podem conduzir à SHU / Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) O113:H21 strains are associated with human diarrhea and some of these strains may cause hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS). In Brazil O113:H21 strains are commonly found in cattle but, so far, were not isolated from HUS patients. Previously, our group conducted comparative gene co-expression network (GCN) analyses of two O113:H21 STEC strains: EH41, isolated from a HUS patient in Australia, and Ec472/01, isolated from bovine feces in Brazil. Differential transcriptome profiles for EH41 and Ec472/01 revealed a gene set exclusively expressed in EH41, which includes the dicA putative virulence factor regulator. GCN analysis showed that this set of genes constitutes an EH41 specific transcriptional module which may be associated to virulence factors. Therefore, in the present work a system biology approach was conducted to investigate the differential Caco-2 response - genomic and phenotypic - to EH41 (Caco-2/EH41) or to Ec472/01 (Caco- 2/Ec472) along enterocyte-bacteria interaction. The genomic analysis was based on temporal GCN data in order to gain a better understanding on the molecular mechanisms underlying the capacity to cause HUS. The phenotypic alterations in Caco-2 during enterocyte-bacteria interaction were assessed by scanning electronic microscopy (SEM). The genomic analysis showed that the molecular mechanism of Caco-2 response to EH41 or to Ec472/01 during enterocyte-bacteria interaction is clearly different. The GCN topological analyses for Caco-2/EH41 group revealed loss of the scale-free status after one hour of interaction, persistence of this condition along the second hour and establishment of a new gene hierarchy thereafter. These events resemble the network mechanism of health-disease transition. The new established network represents an adaptive cell response to the pathogen and not the return to a \"normal\" state. Conversely, the networks for Caco-2/Ec472 group showed a slow and progressive loss of the scale-free status without its restoration at the end of the time interval here studied. Through transcriptional module characterization it was possible to reveal the dynamic of the molecular mechanism involved in the Caco-2 differential responses to the STEC isolates. EH41 induces a rapid inflammatory and apoptotic response just after the first hour of enterocyte-bacteria interaction. Instead, the Caco-2 response to Ec472/01 is characterized by phagocytosis activation at the first hour, followed by the expression of immune response modulators after the second hour. SEM phenotypic analysis of Caco-2 cells along enterocyte-bacteria interaction showed more intense microvilli destruction in cells exposed to EH41, when compared to cells exposed to Ec472/01. The integration of genomic and phenotypic data allowed us to conclude that EH41, comparatively to Ec472/01, induces greater and precocious global gene expression alterations in Caco-2, what is related to excessive inflammatory and apoptotic responses. These responses are associated with the pronounced morphological alterations observed by SEM in Caco-2 cells exposed to EH41. Altogether, these results contribute for a better understanding of the molecular mechanism involved in STEC pathogenicity associated to HUS. Therefore, the future perspectives for the development of the present work should include the investigation of virulence factors and molecular pathways involved in the induction of immune responses leading to HUS

Equine arteritis virus (EAV) has a global impact on the equine industry being the causative agent of equine viral arteritis (EVA), a reproductive, respiratory, and systemic disease of equids. A distinctive feature of EAV infection is that it establishes long-term persistent infection in the reproductive tract of stallions and is continuously shed in the semen (carrier state). Recent studies showed that long-term persistence is associated with a specific allele of the CXCL16 gene (CXCL16S). However, the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the establishment and maintenance of persistent infection are yet to be determined. The studies were undertaken herein unequivocally demonstrated that the ampulla is the main EAV tissue reservoir rather than immunologically privileged tissues (i.e., testes) and that EAV has specific tropism for stromal cells and CD8+ T and CD21+ B lymphocytes but not glandular epithelium in the reproductive tract. Furthermore, persistent EAV infection is associated with a significant humoral, mucosal antibody and inflammatory response at the site of persistence, characterized by induction of high levels of neutralizing antibodies (IgG1), mucosal anti-EAV-specific IgA, IgG1, IgG3/5, and IgG4/7 with variable neutralizing efficacy; and moderate, multifocal lymphoplasmacytic ampullitis, with significant infiltration of T lymphocytes (mainly CD8+ and low numbers of FOXP3+ lymphocytes), CD21+ B lymphocytes, diverse Ig-secreting plasma cells, and Iba-1+ and CD83+ tissue macrophages/dendritic cells. Moreover, EAV long-term persistent infection is associated with a CD8+ T lymphocyte transcriptional profile with upregulation of T-cell exhaustion-related transcripts and homing chemokines/chemokine receptors (CXCL9-11/CXCR3 and CXCL16/CXCR6), orchestrated by a specific subset of transcription factors (EOMES, PRDM1, BATF, NFATC2, STAT1, IRF1, TBX21), which are associated with the presence of the susceptibility allele (CXCL16S). Finally, these studies have determined that long-term EAV persistence is associated with the downregulation of a specific seminal exosome-associated miRNA (eca-mir-128) along with an enhanced expression of CXCL16 in the reproductive tract, a putative target of eca-mir-128. These findings provide evidence that this miRNA plays a crucial role in the regulation of the CXCL16/CXCR6 axis in the reproductive tract of persistently infected stallions, a chemokine axis strongly implicated in EAV persistence. The findings presented herein suggest that complex host-pathogen interactions shape the outcome of EAV infection in the stallion and that EAV employs complex immune evasion mechanisms favoring persistence in the reproductive tract. Further studies to identify specific mechanisms mediating the modulation of the CXCL16/CXCR6 axis and viral immune evasion in the reproductive tract of the EAV long-term carrier stallion are warranted.