I Sverige ökar antalet kvinnor som är intresserade av ett jobb inom IT-branschen medan andelen kvinnor som arbetar i branschen minskar. Denna studie utforskar detta fenomen ur ett företagsekonomiskt och ett medie- och kommunikationsvetenskapligt perspektiv. Genom intervjuer med tio kvinnor med erfarenheter från den svenska IT-branschen syftar denna studie till att förstå de huvudsakliga barriärerna som kvinnor upplever i branschen. Vi finner tre huvudsakliga barriärer: (i) Maskulin organisationskultur där vi upptäcker att kvinnor anpassar sig till de maskulina kulturerna, (ii) Sociala förväntningar på feminina och maskulina stereotyper där vi kan se att kvinnor förväntas ta ett mer socialt ansvar på arbetsplatsen och (iii) Ifrågasättande av kompetens där vi finner att kvinnors kompetenser ifrågasätts både av andra parter och av sig själva. Till skillnad från studier om samma fenomen i andra länder identifieras inte konflikter mellan privat- och arbetsliv som en framträdande barriär. / In Sweden the number of women who are interested in a job in the IT industry is increasing, however the existing portion of women working in the industry is decreasing. This study explores this phenomenon from the business studies perspective, and the media and communication studies perspective. Through interviews with ten women, with experiences from the Swedish IT industry, this study aims to reach an understanding of the main barriers that women experience in the industry. We find three main barriers: (i) Masculine organizational culture where we detect that women are adjusting to the masculine cultures, (ii) Social expectations of feminine and masculine stereotypes where we discover that women are expected to take on more social responsibility at the workplace and (iii) Questioning of competence where we find that women’s competences are being questioned both by other parties and by themselves. Unlike studies of the same phenomenon in other countries, conflicts between personal life and work life is not identified as a distinctive barrier.

All organizations, regardless of size, are affected by information security awareness. Information security awareness is an important component, especially for organizations in the IT industry, to be able to respond to new cyber threats but also comply with requirements and regulations for handling customer data. The purpose of the study is to improve awareness-raising measures used by Swedish micro and small companies in the IT industry to increase information security awareness among employees. The study is performed through semi-structured interviews and then analyzed using the Grounded theory-method. The study highlights the awareness measures used in the IT industry and how they are used among companies to make employees aware of information security. In addition, the companies' underlying motives for their choice of awareness measure and their perspective on adapting the measure are examined. The study's conclusions present recommendations that can be used by micro and small companies in the IT industry to improve their awareness-raising measures. The study highlights the importance of adapting training measures, but also that companies should present reality-based scenarios to employees. In addition, it is also emphasized that incentives should be used by information security officers for employees to ensure compliance. / Alla organisationer, oavsett storlek påverkas av informationssäkerhetsmedvetenhet. Medvetenhet om informationssäkerhet är en viktig komponent i synnerhet för organisationer inom IT-branschen för att kunna bemöta nya cyberhot men också efterleva krav och regleringar för hantering av kunddata. Syftet med studien är att förbättra medvetenhetshöjande åtgärder som används av svenska mikro- och småbolag inom IT-branschen för att öka informationssäkerhetsmedvetenheten bland anställda. Studien utförs genom semistrukturerade intervjuer och analyseras sedan med hjälp av Grundad teori-metoden. Studien synliggör vilka medvetenhetsåtgärder som används inom IT-branschen och hur de används bland bolagen för att göra anställda medvetna gällande informationssäkerhet. Dessutom framgår bolagens bakomliggande motiv för deras val av medvetenhetsåtgärd samt deras perspektiv på anpassning av åtgärd. Studiens slutsatser presenterar rekommendationer som kan användas av mikro- och småbolag inom IT-branschen för att förbättra deras medvetenhetshöjande åtgärder. Studien lyfter fram betydelsen av anpassning av utbildningsåtgärder, men även att bolagen bör presentera verklighetsförankrade scenarier till de anställda. Därtill framhävs även att incitament bör användas av informationssäkerhetsansvariga till anställda för att säkerställa efterlevnad.

In today’s dynamic global environment, organizations need to be agile and adaptive by practicing innovative strategies in order to sustain and remain competitive. One indicator of organizational sustainability is its productivity, which translates into the productivity and performance of employees in the organization. Performance evaluation of employees is an important step in measuring the employee productivity. Such evaluations are in general conducted annually using a performance appraisal system (PAS). The annual appraisal using PAS has two major drawbacks. The first drawback is the long frequency of the appraisal process. As it is an annual affair, the errors such as subjectivity, recency error, bias, halo effect, stereotyping etc. creeps in, and as a result the evaluations will not be proper. The second drawback is with respect to fixation of target/goal achievement. While achieving the targets/goals which are fixed at the beginning of the appraisal period are important, any steps towards achieving such goals are equally important. These drawbacks can be addressed to an extent by having an ongoing or continuous method for performance evaluation of employees. Hence there is a need for continuous performance evaluation of employees (CPEE). Although the importance of CPEE has been highlighted in the literature, we are not aware of any process by which CPEE could be operationalized. In order to implement and sustain, any organizational process, it should produce certain periodic outputs, which is meaningful to its administrators and beneficiaries. In the case of CPEE one such output could be to provide a proper and timely rewards and recognition (R&R). R&R is a motivational tool used for appreciation which could boost employee performance and productivity. Research underline that R&R is strongly and positively correlated to the performance of employees. As defined in thesis, Reward is the materialistic part of the appreciation (such as memento, certificate etc.), while Recognition is the feeling of being appreciated (such as a pat on the back or a public applause). Both Reward and Recognition is considered in unison and considered as mutually inclusive in this thesis. There is some variation of R&R practiced in organizations, known as employee awards. Such awards are motivating enough for the employees. In general, the employee awards are based on nominations from the managers, which are scrutinized by an individual committee and one among the nominated employees is offered the award. Nevertheless employees are often clueless about what performance fetched them the award. In other words the criteria for such awards are often unknown. Similar to PAS, the criteria for such evaluations are developed mostly by the employers with hardly any input from the employees. Additionally the employee awards are heavily dependent upon the PAS and it is mostly an annual affair. Hence the drawbacks for PAS are also applicable for the existing employee awards process. In order to address these drawbacks, R&R should be given in an ongoing and continuous manner. Although the importance and the positive correlation between R&R and employee performance has been established, it has not known to be widely practiced in organizations. This could be due to a lack of proper framework to implement such programs. The CPEE process could be the basis for providing R&R. Therefore this thesis is aimed at developing a comprehensive framework for CPEE to offer R&R. Performance of employee is a sum total of the performances across various dimensions (such as knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviours). As the performance for employees is a multi-dimensional concept, the criteria for evaluation using CPEE process should also be based on multiple criteria. Therefore in order to effectively address the operational process of CPEE to offer R&R, a multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) method based model needs to be developed. A focused review of the existing literature on performance evaluation of employees substantiated the research problem that there is a lack of proper framework for CPEE to offer R&R. In order to address this research problem, the main objective of this thesis is to develop a comprehensive, formal and objective method to evaluate the employee performance in a continuous manner based on multiple evaluation criteria from the perspectives of employees as well as employers to offer proper and timely reward and recognition to the best performing employee(s). In order to address the main objective of the research, the following objectives are envisaged: 1. To identify the set of variables/criteria with respect to both employees’ and employers’ perspectives and to propose an initial framework for CPEE to offer R&R. 2. To develop a final framework for CPEE to offer R&R based on the initial proposed framework and descriptive research 3 To develop a multi-criteria-decision-making (MCDM) method for the proposed framework for CPEE to offer R&R The scope of this research is limited to Information Technology (IT) organizations due to the alarming rate of attrition and the presence of younger population who are knowledge workers. They expect frequent appreciation and continuous feedback regarding their performance. In this thesis, employees are represented by Software Engineers (SEs) and the employers are represented by Project Managers (PMs). Research Objective 1: In order to address the first research objective a six phased approach is planned. In the first phase, the available literature on existing performance evaluations in general and employee motivations are reviewed to identify the possible variables/criteria for CPEE to offer R&R. This resulted in 51 variables for performance evaluation. As it cannot be confidently asserted whether these variables are applicable to employees of IT organizations, a set of unstructured interviews are conducted with Software Engineers to prepare Case-lets. This Case-let approach with Software Engineers is carried out in the second phase and 7 Case-let reports are prepared. From the analysis of the 7 Case-let reports, 27 variables are identified. As the variables identified from Case-let approach may not represent the entire IT employees, a series of semi structured interviews are conducted among 58 Software Engineers in the third phase to identify further variables/criteria and accordingly 35 variables are identified. In order to obtain the list of variables/criteria based on employers’ perspectives and to validate the set of variables/criteria suggested by Software Engineers, 31 Project Managers are interviewed following semi structured interview method in the fourth phase and 33 variables are identified. In the fifth phase, the variables identified from second to fourth phases are triangulated with those identified from literature (i.e. first phase) which resulted in 33 unique variables that could be used for CPEE of Software Engineers to offer R&R. The final set of 33 variables/criteria are appropriately grouped into variables relating to Demographic Characteristics of Software Engineers (DCSE) and Performance of Software Engineers (PSE). Accordingly, 5 variables related to DCSE and 28 variables related to PSE out of the 33 variables finalized for CPEE to offer R&R, are grouped. Utilizing these grouped sets of variables in DCSE and PSE, an initial framework for CPEE to offer R&R is proposed in the sixth phase. Research Objective 2: In order to validate and to statistically finalize the proposed initial framework, a descriptive research is conducted. For this the importance of each of the identified 33 variables are sought from 443 Software Engineers from 12 IT organizations. A bivariate analysis is planned to analyse the significance of variables of DCSE with the variables of PSE. As there are 28 variables in PSE, they are further grouped with respect to the latent structure using a factor analysis. The factor analysis yielded six factors for measuring PSE. The factors (called as main criteria) are Proactive, Prompt, Resourceful, Responsible, Diagnostic and Dynamic. Based on the bivariate analysis among variables in DCSE and the six main criteria, only three variables, out of five variables of DCSE emerged as significant. Based on the factor analysis and bivariate analysis, the proposed initial framework is modified. Appropriate hypotheses are proposed to indicate the relation between DCSE, PSE and R&R in the modified framework. The modified framework is validated by developing suitable Structural Equation Model (SEM) to verify the hypotheses. The relative influence of DCSE, PSE and R&R are identified based on statistical validation and the framework is finalized. Research Objective 3: As there are six main criteria identified in PSE for CPEE to offer R&R, the proposed framework could be appropriately modelled using MCDM method(s)/models(s). As CPEE is a continuous process, the performance evaluation using CPEE should take only a minimum time for completion of evaluation process, and it should be easy to implement and administer and also should be flexible to accommodate any changes in the criteria or alternatives. These are the preconditions to select the suitable MCDM method(s)/model(s) to operationalize the process of CPEE to offer R&R. In order to select a suitable MCDM method from the available methods, various MCDM methods are screened based on the expected preconditions of the framework. Pugh Matrix Method (PMM) is selected for the CPEE process and is modified to address the basic drawbacks of PMM so as to utilize in this thesis. Accordingly, the MCDM methods: AHP and a Modified Pugh Matrix Method (MPMM) (which are meeting the expected preconditions of the framework such as minimum time, maximum easiness and maximum flexibility) are considered to model the proposed framework for CPEE to offer R&R. The AHP is used to calculate the relative weights and the MPMM is used to compare the performance of employees to provide a relative score. Accordingly, the proposed MCDM based modelling framework for CPEE to offer R&R is demonstrated by developing a suitable example. The MCDM method for CPEE to offer R&R developed in this thesis provides a performance score for every employee for every performance-cycle of CPEE. This score could be stored in a database which could be appropriately utilized during the periodic performance appraisal process using PAS. Overall, the contributions of the research are: (i) a new research problem on CPEE to offer R&R is identified (ii) a set of variables/criteria are identified from both employees and employers perspective, particularly for IT Organizations and an initial framework for CPEE to offer R&R is proposed (iii) a statistically finalized framework for CPEE to offer R&R is presented with the variables/ criteria identified (iv) simple MCDM methods are developed for the operationalization of the proposed framework for CPEE to offer R&R and a possible integration with the organization’s existing PAS is also conceptually presented. (ii) Although the research has accomplished its objectives, there are certain limitations such as (i) the focus of research is limited only to IT organizations, and hence cannot necessarily be generalized, the sampling is based on convenience and assumed to represent the entire IT population in the country and (iii) other MCDM methods are not explored so as to develop the proposed framework. Addressing these could be some of the future research directions in this area.

Temporary migrant workers and circular migration constitute a growing global phenomenon as the management of migration becomes increasingly important to policymakers. This thesis takes academic discussions on citizenship and migration as its starting point, and examines the role of employers in terms of defining temporary migrant workers and their role in the Swedish labour market. The concept of moral economy is applied in particular to analyse the justifications and negotiations through which working conditions of migrant workers, and their role in local and transnational economies, are established and contested. The role of capital in migration management is studied through ethnographic fieldwork and through interviews with managers in the Swedish wild berry and IT industries; two very different industries that are, however, both shaped by particular structures of seasonal labour and international outsourcing and that increasingly rely on temporary foreign workers from Thailand and India respectively. The conceptualisation of supply chains in these industries offers a particular framework through which relations, as well as management discourses, can be analysed. The study explores how notions of circularity, nation, cultural difference, and transnational economic difference, are managed by private sector actors. It also explores how managers relate to public discourse and emotions in the face of global economic restructuring and changing citizenship, which situates temporary migrants as part of, yet different from, Swedish labour. / Temporära migrantarbetare och cirkulär migration utgör ett växande globalt fenomen till följd av intresset bland regeringar och myndigheter att styra genom sk ”managed migration”. Denna avhandling tar avstamp i forskning om medborgarskap och migration för att undersöka vilken roll arbetsgivare får när det gäller att definiera tillfälliga migrantarbetare och deras roll på den svenska arbetsmarknaden. Begreppet moralisk ekonomi används för att lyfta fram och analysera de praktiker genom vilka migrantarbetarnas arbetsvillkor förhandlas och rättfärdigas, samt hur deras roller i lokala och transnationella ekonomier befästs eller förändras. Ekonomins roll i migrationshantering studeras i denna avhandling genom etnografiskt fältarbete och intervjuer med chefer inom den svenska bärindustrin samt IT industrin; två mycket olika industrier som dock båda struktureras av säsongsarbete respektive internationell outsourcing, och som alltmer använder tillfällig utländsk arbetskraft från Thailand respektive Indien. Genom begreppet utbudskedjor (supply chains) möjliggörs en analys av de relationer, samt de managementdiskurser, som påverkar dessa industrier. Avhandlingen utforskar hur föreställningar om cirkularitet, nation, kulturella skillnader, samt transnationella ekonomiska skillnader, förhandlas av aktörer inom näringslivet. Vidare diskuteras hur chefer relaterar till de diskurser och emotioner som en global ekonomisk omstrukturering och ett förändrat medborgarskap ger upphov till, vilket positionerar tillfälliga migrantarbetare som en del av, men ändå annorlunda än, svensk arbetskraft.

Cette recherche a eu pour but principal de montrer, à travers l’exemple de l’industrie informatique dans les années 90, que la stratégie de partenariat est aujourd’hui devenue un outil essentiel pour permettre aux entreprises à la tête d’une industrie à forte innovation technologique, confrontée à des changements structurels importants, et en particulier à la désintégration menant au leadership technologique partagé, de maintenir leur position dominante. <p> <p>Les quatre parties du travail constituent une suite logique d’étapes contribuant chacune à valider la thèse: la partie I porte sur la synthèse des principaux courants de la littérature scientifique sur les accords de collaboration et leur relation avec l’évolution des industries. Le but poursuivi dans la partie II est de décrire les changements intervenus dans l’industrie informatique au cours des années 90 et de formuler l’hypothèse d’une relation entre ces changements et la stratégie des firmes dans le domaine des accords de collaboration. Cette hypothèse est vérifiée empiriquement dans les parties III et IV à l’aide d’une banque de données sur les accords de collaboration. La partie III du travail présente les résultats descriptifs et la partie IV les résultats analytiques permettant de valider l’hypothèse.<p> / Doctorat en sciences de gestion / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Am Beispiel von Projektarbeit in der IT-Branche werden die Auswirkungen neuer Managementkonzepte auf die Zeitsouveränität von Projektbeschäftigten anhand qualitativer Interviews untersucht. Flexible Formen der Arbeitsorganisation zielen auf eine Veränderung des Arbeitskraftvermögens hin zu größerer Autonomie und Übernahme betrieblicher Verantwortung durch die Beschäftigten. Mit den veränderten Kontrollformen des Managements modifizieren sich die betrieblichen Machtverhältnisse. Im Konzept des Zeithandelns werden die aktiven Gestaltungsleistungen der Beschäftigten bei der Arbeitszeitgestaltung hervorgehoben, gleichzeitig können verschiedene zeitsoziologische Theorien integriert werden. Wesentliches Ergebnis der empirischen Untersuchung verschiedener Arbeitszeitkulturen in IT-Betrieben ist eine Machtverschiebung zugunsten des Managements. Auf Seiten der abhängig Beschäftigten ist positiv zu verbuchen: eine größere Autonomie in der Arbeit, die Ausdifferenzierung eigenständiger Zeitstile sowie eine hohe Wertschätzung und Anerkennung durch Vorgesetzte. Dagegen stehen restriktive Rahmenbedingungen wie Zeitdruck, ungünstige Bedingungen für die Work-Life-Balance und starke zeitliche und gedankliche Vereinnahmung der Beschäftigten durch den Betrieb. Durch das Fehlen kollektiver Formen der Interessenvertretung und einen defensiven Konfliktumgangsstil sind die betrieblichen Beziehungen durch individuelle Aushandlungsprozesse geprägt.

Am Beispiel von Projektarbeit in der IT-Branche werden die Auswirkungen neuer Managementkonzepte auf die Zeitsouveränität von Projektbeschäftigten anhand qualitativer Interviews untersucht. Flexible Formen der Arbeitsorganisation zielen auf eine Veränderung des Arbeitskraftvermögens hin zu größerer Autonomie und Übernahme betrieblicher Verantwortung durch die Beschäftigten. Mit den veränderten Kontrollformen des Managements modifizieren sich die betrieblichen Machtverhältnisse. Im Konzept des Zeithandelns werden die aktiven Gestaltungsleistungen der Beschäftigten bei der Arbeitszeitgestaltung hervorgehoben, gleichzeitig können verschiedene zeitsoziologische Theorien integriert werden. Wesentliches Ergebnis der empirischen Untersuchung verschiedener Arbeitszeitkulturen in IT-Betrieben ist eine Machtverschiebung zugunsten des Managements. Auf Seiten der abhängig Beschäftigten ist positiv zu verbuchen: eine größere Autonomie in der Arbeit, die Ausdifferenzierung eigenständiger Zeitstile sowie eine hohe Wertschätzung und Anerkennung durch Vorgesetzte. Dagegen stehen restriktive Rahmenbedingungen wie Zeitdruck, ungünstige Bedingungen für die Work-Life-Balance und starke zeitliche und gedankliche Vereinnahmung der Beschäftigten durch den Betrieb. Durch das Fehlen kollektiver Formen der Interessenvertretung und einen defensiven Konfliktumgangsstil sind die betrieblichen Beziehungen durch individuelle Aushandlungsprozesse geprägt.