Proteins—polymers of amino acids—are a major class of biomolecules whose myriad functions facilitate many crucial biological processes. Accordingly, human control over these biological processes depends upon the ability to study, produce, and modify proteins. One innovative tool for accomplishing these aims is cell-free protein synthesis (CFPS). This technique, rather than using living cells to make protein, simply extracts the cells' natural protein-making machinery and then uses it to produce protein in vitro. Because living cells are no longer involved, scientists can freely adapt the protein production environment in ways not otherwise possible. However, improved versatility and yield of CFPS protein production is still the subject of considerable research. This work focuses on two ideas for furthering that research.The first idea is the adaptation of CFPS to make proteins containing unnatural amino acids. Unnatural amino acids are not found in natural biological proteins; they are synthesized artificially to possess useful properties which are then conferred upon any protein made with them. However, current methods for incorporating unnatural amino acids do not allow incorporation of more than one type of unnatural amino acid into a single protein. This work helps lay the groundwork for the incorporation of different unnatural amino acid types into proteins. It does this by using modified aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (aaRSs), which are key components in CFPS, to be compatible with unnatural amino acids. The second idea is the preservation of DNA templates from enzyme degradation in CFPS. Among the advantages of CFPS is the option of using linear expression templates (LETs) in place of plasmids as the DNA template for protein production. Because LETs can be produced more quickly than plasmids can, using LETs greatly reduces the time required to obtain a DNA template for protein production. This renders CFPS a better candidate for high-throughput testing of proteins. However, LETs are more susceptible to enzyme-mediated degradation than plasmids are, which means that LET-based CFPS protein yields are lower than plasmid-based CFPS yields. This work explores the possibility of increasing the protein yield of LET-based CFPS by addition of sacrificial DNA, DNA which is not used as a protein-making template but which is degraded by the enzymes in place of the LETs.

The Convention on the Rights of the Child was incorporated into Swedish legislation in 2020 to strengthen the child's best interests and perspective in areas such as asylum law (UNICEFSweden, 2020a). The purpose of this essay is to examine how the individual asylum grounds of unaccompanied children are handled in the asylum process and in what way the child's best interests are actually considered in the asylum process before and after the incorporation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child. This essay will answer the following question:How has the application of the best interests of the child according to Article 3 in asylum cases for unaccompanied children changed before and after the incorporation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child into Swedish law based on the theory of the best interests of the child as an open concept? Through a qualitative content analysis of judgments, changes and deficiencies in the protection of the rights of unaccompanied children are identified. The study examines how the courts take into account the best interests of the childbased on Schiratzki's (2005) legal theory of the best interests of the child as an open concept.The results of the study have shown that before incorporation, the judgments extensively consider the best interests of the child according to Article 3 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child by highlighting potential consequences upon return. However, after incorporation, the migration court fails in considering the best interests of the child. This is because the concept of 'the best interests of the child' is comprehensive, and the court does not assess this from a holistic perspective, which is important for a fair assessment according to Schiratzki (2005).

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En 2010, l'Organisation Mondiale de la Santé (OMS) a publié de nouvelles recommandations pour le traitement contre le Vih/Sida dans le but d'améliorer la qualité des thérapies antirétrovirales (TARV) distribuées dans les pays en voie de développement (PED). Cependant, les coûts de plus en plus importants liés à l'incorporation des antirétroviraux (ARV) de nouvelle génération, associés à l'intensification de la protection des droits de la propriété intellectuelle (DPI), accentuent le déséquilibre entre les priorités d'expansion de la couverture des patients et les objectifs d'amélioration des traitements, ce qui favorise la pérennité d'un double standard de soins dans le monde. Cette thèse a pour objectif d'analyser les déterminants de l'incorporation des nouvelles technologies et de l'évolution des prix des ARV pour mieux comprendre leur impact sur la qualité et l'accessibilité financière des TARV dans les PED. La présente recherche est basée sur la politique brésilienne de TARV et les leçons qu'elle peut apporter dans la lute contre l'épidémie du Vih/Sida. La première partie de la thèse porte sur les critères utilisés pour l'incorporation des nouveaux médicaments dans les protocoles cliniques de TARV. L'étude part des méthodes de l'analyse de contenu et statistique pour examiner l'impact des prix des ARVs sur les recommandations thérapeutiques et comment celles-ci influencent la pratique médicale. / In 2010, the World Health Organization (WHO) published new HIV/AIDS treatment recommendations which aim at improving the quality of antiretroviral therapy (ART) delivered in developing countries. Nonetheless, the higher costs of incorporating new and more potent antiretrovirals (ARVs), coupled by the intensification of intellectual property rights (IPRs) protection, put in evidence a growing trade-off between patient coverage expansion priorities and treatment quality objectives, which tend to favor the perpetuation of a double standard of HIV care in the world.This thesis aims at analyzing the determinants of technology incorporation and price evolution in HIV care as the basis for discussing how these can impact both the quality and affordability of ART in low and middle-income settings. The present research takes as reference the Brazilian ART policy and the insights it may provide in the fight against the HIV/AIDS epidemic. The first part of this thesis addresses the criteria used for the incorporation of novel drugs in ART guidelines. Content and statistical analyses are used to examine the impact of ARV prices on therapeutic recommendations and how the latter have been able to influence clinical practice. They show that, although efficacy, toxicity and dosing convenience represent major determinants of ART incorporation decisions in Brazil, costs have most recently started influencing deferral in the use of new ARVs. The second part takes into account the role of patent protection on pharmaceutical innovation and pricing, further employing descriptive and econometric approaches to analyze ARV market structure and prices in Brazil.

Cette étude porte sur la question de l’efficacité de la convention d’arbitrage à l’égard des opérateurs du transport maritime de marchandises. Dans un premier temps, la question qui se pose est celle de la détermination du droit applicable à l’efficacité de ladite clause. A cet égard, notre attention se concentre sur l’interprétation et l’application des principes propres à l’arbitrage international par la jurisprudence maritime. L’examen des clauses d’arbitrage insérées dans un contrat de transport maritime ne saurait échapper aux spécificités du droit de transport maritime ainsi qu’aux dispositions des conventions maritimes internationales. Par ailleurs, l’approche du sujet par la méthode comparative nous permettra de découvrir, à travers les solutions concrètes finalement retenues dans les trois systèmes juridiques en question, que l’effet juridique de la clause compromissoire est directement lié à l a position contractuelle de ces opérateurs. Parmi les personnes impliquées dans le transport maritime, le destinataire des marchandises nous intéresse plus particulièrement. Ce dernier n’étant pas présent, en effet, au moment de la formation du contrat, les conditions de son engagement par une clause compromissoire insérée, presque toujours « par référence » dans le titre de transport, font l’objet d’un vif débat doctrinal et jurisprudentiel. / This study is primarily focused on the enforceability of arbitration agreements incorporated in contracts of carriage of goods by sea. First, we will cover the important issue of determining the law applicable to these arbitration agreements. Special attention will be given to how courts tend to implement general international arbitration principles to maritime disputes. An arbitration agreement incorporated in acontract of carriage of goods by sea should also be analyzed in light of the specificities of maritime transport law and applicable international shipping conventions. Moreover, the comparative methodology used herein will show that the enforceability of arbitration agreements is closely related to the qualification of the operators involved in the contract. In particular, among the commercial players involved in the carriage of the goods, we sought to examine the legal position of the consignee of the goods. Indeed, since the consignee is absent at the moment of the contract formation, the binding effect there upon of the arbitration agreement, which is generally incorporated “by reference” to the bill of lading, is highly debated by scholars and judges.

This thesis report presents the process which has been followed to develop an incorporation of wine restaurant project in Chinese market, and it will start the projection in Taiwan first. The goal of the thesis is to provide investors with clear information and concept of the development of this innovated business model in China in the respect of the wine culture. Bacchus is the god of the grape harvest, winemaking and wine, and also the god of ritual madness and ecstasy in Greek mythology. In western society, wine culture already existed for thousands of years and has become a daily common consumption. However, it is still in an infant era in Asian market, especially the Chinese market. Focused on wine culture and developing a new wine consumption experience, BWC Inc. will be the first restaurant to offer wine set in different themes, and meanwhile offer the matched food (tapas) set. Our value curve will be close to yet different from the existing premium western restaurant. It will also offer the function of lounge bar, which is friendly for the mass consumers. Through the business model, wine culture can be widely spread instead of being just an expensive entertainment for premium customers.

Le droit des organisations internationales a été le lieu d’une belle querelle d’école entre les détracteurs et les adeptes de la normativité relative. Il en va de même des rapports de systèmes, qui divisent la doctrine entre les monistes (en voie de disparition), les dualistes et les non-alignés. Aborder le thème du traitement du droit dérivé par les ordres juridiques internes c’est prendre le risque de s’égarer dans ces tourbillons doctrinaux. Si l’on accepte que le point de vue du juge interne est pertinent pour la détermination de la force normative du droit dérivé, on comprend que le premier débat semble dépassé : le juge admet que le droit institutionnel est du droit, qu’il soit obligatoire ou non. Se pose dès lors la question de la capacité de ce droit à être source de droits et obligations dans l’ordre interne. On remarque qu’à cette fin, l’ensemble des ordres juridiques examinés exige l’incorporation des actes institutionnels, mais aussi que les juges internes accordent de la place à des formes de reconnaissance des effets des actes institutionnels déconnectées de l’incorporation. Ces tendances convergentes démontrent à la fois que le clivage monisme/dualisme n’est pas décisif, mais aussi que la pensée dualiste ne reflète pas fidèlement les modalités d’interaction entre les ordres juridiques dans le monde pluraliste. La reconnaissance participe d’un principe de coordination et non pas de séparation des ordres juridiques, qui se prolonge par ailleurs dans les solutions aux conflits normatifs, ainsi que dans les modalités et les effets du contrôle, par les juges internes, des normes institutionnelles. / The law of international organisations has been the theatre of passionate academic debate between the detractors and the disciples of the relative normativity. The same can be said about the relations between the legal orders, which divide the doctrine into monists, dualists and non-aligned. Analysing the topic of the place of institutional law in domestic legal orders is taking the risk of losing one’s way in these doctrinal whirls. If we take for granted that the point of view of the domestic judge is relevant for appreciating the normative force of institutional law, we may say that the first debate seems outdated : the domestic judge recognizes that the law produced by international organisations is law, whether is binding or not. The following question is to what extent the norms thus produced may be source of rights and obligations in the internal legal orders. The entire range of legal orders examined requires for institutional law to be incorporated for that purpose. The domestic judges leave nonetheless the door opened to other forms for taking into account some of the legal effects of institutional acts. These convergent tendencies show both that the monist/dualist divide is immaterial for the legal status of these acts and that the dualist doctrine does not accurately reflect the modalities of interaction between the legal systems in the world of pluralism. The recognition of unincorporated legal norms, which triggers consequences in terms of conflict of norms and judicial review of institutional law, stands in favour of a model of coordination and not of separation of the legal orders.

Ce travail est consacré à l’étude de l’incorporation volontaire des dopants dans des films de carbure de silicium épitaxiés par la technique de dépôt chimique en phase vapeur. Le rôle des principaux paramètres de croissance (température, flux de dopant, vitesse de dépôt, pression dans le réacteur et le rapport C/Si) sur l’incorporation d’azote et d’aluminium a été étudié en détail. Les travaux menés jusqu’ici ont largement exploré les caractéristiques de l’incorporation de dopants, en particulier l’incorporation d’azote et ont montré des résultats parfois très dépendants de l’équipement de croissance utilisé. Afin d’explorer cette influence, une étude expérimentale exhaustive sur l’incorporation de N et Al a été réalisée sur des couches homoépitaxiées 4H-SiC sur la face carbone et sur la face silicium de substrats 4H-SiC dans nos réacteurs CVD. Cette étude a été complétée par une analyse des propriétés structurales, optiques et électriques de couches 4H-SiC dopé Al. Aussi, la fabrication de diodes pn a été expérimentée sur les couches épitaxiées dans nos réacteurs. Nous avons pu observer différentes tendances expérimentales selon la nature du dopant, l’orientation cristalline du substrat et l’environnement chimique durant la croissance. Nous en déduisons que le mécanisme derrière les tendances observées est largement influencé par des facteurs comme les conditions de croissance (c'est-à-dire la température de croissance et/ou la pression) et la couverture de carbone à la surface de la croissance, surtout sur la face C / This work is dedicated to the investigation of intentional dopant incorporation in silicon carbide epilayers grown by chemical vapor deposition technique. The role of main process conditions (growth temperature, dopant supply, deposition rate, growth pressure and C/Si ratio) on both, Nitrogen and Aluminum incorporation was studied in details. Previous works have widely explored the characteristics of dopant incorporation, especially the nitrogen incorporation addressing a potential influence of growth equipment for the observed incorporation trends. An exhaustive experimental study of N and Al incorporation was performed for homoepitaxial 4H-SiC layers grown on Si- and C-faces of 4H-SiC substrates in our CVD setups to explore such influence. It was completed by the assessment of the structural, optical and electrical properties of the Al doped 4H-SiC films. Furthermore, the fabrication of pn diodes was tested on the grown layers. We have observed different experimental tendencies depending on dopant nature, crystal orientation and chemical environment. We conclude from these observations that the mechanism behind the experimentally obtained tendencies is widely influenced by factors such as process conditions (i.e. growth temperature and/or pressure) and the carbon coverage at the grown surface, especially on C-face