Muitos sistemas apresentam imposições de confiabilidade e latência que se tornam mais difíceis de serem atingidas quando a rede em que o sistema opera é uma rede sem fio. Por outro lado, módulos sensores em uma rede desse tipo precisam economizar energia para evitar gastos com manutenção e estender seu tempo de vida, visto que muitas vezes estes módulos se encontram em locais de difícil acesso. Diversos estudos até aqui realizados mostram ser possível reduzir o consumo de energia de nós otimizando parâmetros da comunicação sem fio. O fato de o sistema exigir uma latência máxima implica que o número de retransmissões não pode ser ilimitado. Nesta dissertação é avaliada a minimização do consumo de energia otimizando parâmetros de comunicação como a ordem de modulação, a SNR (Signal-to-Noise Ratio), taxa de código e inclusive o número de retransmissões, em uma rede que possui exigências de confiabilidade, latência e potência máxima. Este trabalho considera uma comunicação através de um canal com desvanecimento do tipo Rayleigh, o uso de códigos corretores de erro convolucionais, além de S-HARQ (Simple-Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request) como técnica de retransmissão de mensagens. Ao final a mesma avaliação é feita, porém maximizando a eficiência energética do sistema, o que nos leva a perceber que o número máximo de retransmissões não sofre grande impacto quando o tipo de otimização é trocado. Os resultados mostram que a limitação de atraso impacta diretamente na seleção dos parâmetros. Quando o objetivo for reduzir o consumo energético ou aumentar a eficiência energética em um ambiente com limitação de latência nem sempre a melhor escolha será aumentar o número de retransmissões possíveis. Maiores atrasos permitem o uso de números de retransmissões maiores, estendendo o alcance dos dispositivos e reduzindo seu consumo. Além disso, aumentar a confiabilidade das entregas de pacotes impacta de maneira a dificultar a comunicação do ponto de vista energético. / Many systems present constraints of reliability and delay, which become harder to be achieved when the system operates through a wireless network. On the other hand, sensor modules in these networks need to save energy avoiding maintance costs and extending their lifetime, since these modules are usually located in places that are difficult to access. Several works have shown that is possible to reduce the energy consumption in sensor nodes optimizing wireless communication parameters. The fact that the system requires a maximum delay implies that the number of retransmissions cannot be unlimited. In this work we evaluate the energy consumption minimization, optimizing communication parameters such as the modulation order, the SNR (Signal-to-Noise Ratio), code rate, including the number of retransmissions, in a network with reliability, latency and maximum power requirements. This work considers that the wireless links are subjected to Rayleigh fading, while we employ convolutional error correcting codes and S-HARQ (Simple-Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request) as the retransmission technique. In addition, the same evaluation is made, but maximizating system’s energy efficiency, which yields small differences with respect to the case when the energy consumption is minimized. Results show that the delay constraints impact directly in communication parameters selection. Moreover, when the goal is to reduce energy consumption or to increase energy efficiency in a environment with latency constraints, it is not always a good choice to increase number of possible retransmissions. Higher delays allow the use of a large number of retransmission attempts, extending the device’s range and reducing its energy consumption. Furthermore, increasing package delivery realiability turns the communication task harder from the energy efficiency point of view.

Silicon based 3D fin structure is believed to be the potential future of current semiconductor technology. However, there are significant challenges still exist in realizing a manufacturable fin based process. In this work, we have studied the effects of hydrogen anneal on the structural and electrical characteristics of silicon fin based devices: tri-gate, finFET to name a few. H₂ anneal is shown to play a major role in structural integrity and manufacturability of 3D fin structure which is the most critical feature for these types of devices. Both the temperature and the pressure of H₂ anneal can result in significant alteration of fin height and shape as well as electrical characteristics. Optimum H₂ anneal is required in order to improve carrier mobility and device reliability as shown in this work. A new hard-mask based process was developed to retain H₂ anneal related benefit while eliminating detrimental effects such as reduction of device drive current due to fin height reduction. We have also demonstrated a novel 1T-1C pseudo Static Random Access Memory (1T-1C pseudo SRAM) memory cell using low cost conventional tri-gate process by utilizing selective H₂ anneal and other clever process techniques. TCAD-based simulation was also provided to show its competitive advantage over other types of static and dynamic memories in 45nm and beyond technologies. A high gain bipolar based on silicon fin process flow was proposed for the first time that can be used in BiCMOS technology suitable for low cost mixed signal and RF products. TCAD-based simulation results proved the concept with gain as high 100 for a NPN device using single additional mask. Overall, this work has shown that several novel process techniques and selective use of optimum H₂ anneal can lead to various high performance and low cost devices and memory cells those are much better than the devices using current conventional 3D fin based process techniques. / text

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / A Tomografia de Processos é uma importante ferramenta para diversos setores da indústria. Tal importância vem da necessidade de obter informações sobre determinada propriedade física em regiões de complicado acesso, por exemplo, o interior de um duto. A tomografia é uma ferramenta muito versátil, podendo ser adaptada para investigar diversas propriedades físicas. Entre as diversas modalidades tomográficas está a elétrica, conhecida como Tomografia de Impedância Elétrica (EIT). A EIT pode ainda ser dividida em duas partes: Tomografia de Resistência Elétrica (ERT) e Tomografia de Capacitância Elétrica (ECT). Enquanto a ERT é capaz de distinguir materiais condutivos de não-condutivos, a ECT é capaz de diferenciar dois materiais não-condutivos pela sua permissividade elétrica. A modalidade de tomografia elétrica possui vantagens como: baixo tempo de aquisição, baixo custo e não-radioatividade. Os principais desafios enfrentados na tomografia elétrica são: a dependência da trajetória do campo em relação ao meio (efeito de campo mole) e a pouca quantidade de eletrodos disponı́veis para medições devido às dimensões dos mesmos. Em decorrência do efeito de campo mole, a soma da contribuição individual de cada pixel em uma região é diferente da contribuição real da região, em outras palavras, é um problema não-linear. Devido a pequena quantidade de eletrodos, em geral 8 ou 12, reconstruir uma imagem com resolução prática é um problema mal-posto. Muitos métodos foram propostos para contornar essas dificuldades, grande parte se baseia em um modelo linearizado do sistema e na resolução de um problema inverso. Neste trabalho é proposto um método de reconstrução de imagens com representação esparsa, no qual busca-se reconstruir uma imagem composta de poucos elementos de uma base redundante. Esses elementos são aprendidos a partir de sinais de treinamento e usados como entrada para um modelo de ECT. As respostas, em capacitância, desse modelo formam uma matriz de sensibilidade redundante. Tal matriz pode ser interpretada como uma linearização por partes do problema direto. Para validação desse algoritmo foram realizados experimentos em escoamentos bifásicos ar-água. Os sinais de treinamento foram obtidos com o uso de um sensor de ECT em conjunto com um sensor wire-mesh capacitivo. Os resultados obtidos demonstram a capacidade do método proposto em reconstruir imagens a partir de 8 medições de capacitâncias. As imagens reconstruı́das apresentam melhores resultados, segundo diferentes métricas, quando comparados a outros métodos com representações esparsas. / Process Tomography is an important tool for many sectors of industry. Such importance comes from the necessity of obtaining knowledge of physical properties from hard reaching places, as the interior of a solid object or pipe. Tomography is a very versatile tool, it can be adapted for investigating different physical properties. Among the many tomographic modalities is the electrical, know as Electrical Impedance Tomography (EIT). The EIT can also be divided in two: Electrical Resistance Tomography (ERT) and Electrical Capacitance Tomography (ECT). While the ERT is capable of distinguishing conducting materials from non-conducting ones, the ECT is capable of distinguishing two non-conducting materials by their electrical permittivity. The electrical modality has advantages such as: low acquisition time, low cost and non-radioactive. The main challenges of electrical tomography are: dependency of the trajectory of the field in the medium (effect know as soft-field) and the low number of electrodes available for measurement due to their sizes. As a result of the soft-field effect, the sum of individual contributions of small discrete segments in a given region is different from the contribution of the entire region as one. In other words, the relation between the electrical property and the electrical measurements are non-linear. Due to the small number of measuring electrodes, commonly 8 or 12, reconstructing images with practical resolution is an ill-posed problem. In order to overcome these obstacles, many methods were proposed and the majority are based on the resolution of an inverse problem of a linear model. This work proposes a method of image reconstruction with sparse inducing regularization that seeks to obtain an image representation with only few elements of a redundant basis. The elements of this basis are obtained from training images and used as input of an ECT simulation. The output capacitances of the model make up the columns of a redundant sensitivity matrix. Such matrix can be viewed as a piecewise linearization of the direct problem. For validation purposes, experimental tests were conducted on two-phase flows (air-water). The training signals were obtained from an experiment with a capacitive wire-mesh sensor along with an ECT sensor. The results obtained show that the proposed method is capable of reconstructing images from a set of only 8 capacitance measurements. The reconstructed images show better results, according to different metrics, when compared to other methods that also use sparse representations.

Les procédés électrochimiques présentent beaucoup d’avantages dans le domaine du traitement et de la récupération de matière d’effluents industriels. Cependant, dans le cas de solutions diluées en ions métalliques, les électrodes classiques sont fortement limitées par leur efficacité ainsi que par leur taille. Dès lors, les électrodes poreuses, de par leur surface spécifique importante et de par leur structure particulière qui améliore le transport de matière et donc l’efficacité de l’électrode, représentent une alternative très intéressante aux électrodes classiques.<p><p>Parmi les électrodes poreuses, celles constituées de fibres métalliques semblent les plus prometteuses. L’objectif de ce travail est de donner les relations utiles pour dimensionner une cellule contenant ce type d’électrodes en vue du traitement d’effluents industriels contenant des ions métalliques. <p>Les électrodes étudiées ont été caractérisées par différentes techniques :microscopie électronique, méthode électrochimique, mesure de la perte de charge, conductimétrie, porosimétrie,… Cette caractérisation a permis de connaître la porosité, les surfaces spécifiques (géométrique, dynamique et électrochimique) et la tortuosité des électrodes. <p>Ensuite, le coefficient de transport de matière moyen a été étudié par une nouvelle méthode basée sur la mesure d’un rendement électrochimique. Cette méthode présente l’avantage de pouvoir travailler avec des vitesses de circulation de l’électrolyte compatibles avec celles utilisées industriellement. Pour cela, une cellule d’électrolyse à circulation forcée a été mise au point. <p><p>Afin de comprendre comment la géométrie d’une électrode poreuse de ce type influence le transport de matière local et la densité de courant et donc l’efficacité de l’électrode, le transport de matière et la densité de courant locale ont été modélisés autour d’un cylindre (représentatif d’une fibre) et validés par des mesures expérimentales. La modélisation s’est ensuite étendue à un réseau de fibres cylindriques représentatif des électrodes poreuses étudiées. Cette modélisation a permis d’obtenir une relation générale liant les nombres de Sherwood, de Reynolds et de Schmidt à des nombres sans dimension caractérisant la géométrie du réseau de fibres. Cette relation donne des résultats concordants avec ceux obtenus expérimentalement pour les électrodes poreuses étudiées.<p><p>Le volume utile d’une électrode poreuse dépend fortement des conditions expérimentales (concentration de l’électrolyte, vitesse de circulation, intensité du courant appliquée,…) et de la structure de l’électrode (porosité, surface spécifique,…). Ces paramètres influencent la distribution du potentiel et de la densité de courant dans l’électrode. Différents modèles de distribution sont comparés et appliqués aux électrodes poreuses étudiées. Cette distribution de courant influence le colmatage progressif de l’électrode poreuse en cours d’électrolyse. Il s’avère que l’électrode en contrôle diffusionnel (avec un rendement électrochimique faible) optimise la distribution du courant dans l’électrode et, de ce fait, ralenti son colmatage. De plus, travailler avec une solution diluée et une vitesse de circulation de l’électrolyte importante améliore la distribution du courant. Il en est de même si l’électrode poreuse présente une grande porosité et une faible surface spécifique.<p><p>Ce travail aura donc permis de proposer des relations indispensables pour le dimensionnement d’une cellule à électrodes poreuses (constituées de fibres métalliques) ainsi que les conditions opératoires idéales dans le cas du traitement d’effluents industriels contenant des ions métalliques./<p>Electrochemical techniques offer many advantages for the prevention of pollution problems in the industrial processes. However, flat electrodes are not ideal to treat dilute solutions containing metallic ions. With their high specific surface and open structure, which enhance mass transfer, porous electrodes are a good alternative for the treatment this kind of effluent. Fibre materials are particularly well suited as material for the production of porous electrodes. <p><p>The aim of this thesis is to study an electrochemical cell with a porous electrode in order to treat dilute metallic ions solutions and to provide dimensionless equations suited to scale-up the electrode for industrial application. <p><p>The porous electrodes, used in this thesis, are made of a stainless steel fibre network. The main properties and characteristics of these electrodes are studied by means of several techniques :electron microscopy, electrochemical methods (voltammetry, limiting current density measurerment), conductivity measurement, porosimetry, pressure drop measurement,… The obtained parameters are :porosity, specific surfaces (geometric, dynamic and electrochemical), fibres' diameter, tortuosity and the geometric disposition of the fibres in the electrodes. Mass transfer inside the porous electrodes is studied experimentally by a new developed method, linked to the measurement of the faradic yield as a function of different electrolysis parameters. For these measurements, an experimental electrolysis cell with high electrolyte flow rate has been designed and builds.<p><p>To understand how the geometry of the porous electrode influences the local and mean mass transfer coefficients and current densities, numerical studies and simulations have been performed. <p>The first type of simulation deals with a single wire (representative of a fibre from the porous electrode). <p>The second type of simulation deals with the integration of individual fibres in a fibre network. A correlation between dimensionless numbers such as Sherwood's, Reynolds' and Schmidt's numbers together with numbers characteristic of the electrode’s geometry has been established for Reynolds’s numbers ranging from 0,02 to 1,4. A good agreement between simulation and experimental measurements of mass transfer is observed.<p><p>The real effective electrochemical volume of the porous electrode depends on experimental conditions (current, concentration, flow velocity…) and electrode’s geometry (porosity, specific surface,…). These parameters influence the potential and current distribution inside the porous electrode. Several models of current distribution are applied to these electrodes and the theoretical simulations are compared with experimental measures. <p>As a result of these simulations, an electrode under diffusion control with a small faradic yield appears to be the best choice in order to homogenise the current density inside the porous electrodes. Dilute solutions, high flow velocity and electrodes with high porosity improve also the current density penetration inside the electrode. These observations are confirmed by an electrode’s plugging study.<p><p>In conclusion, this thesis provides mathematical relationships to scale-up a cell with porous electrodes of metallic fibre, and provides guidelines to treat, in an efficient manner industrial effluents containing metallic ions.<p><p> / Doctorat en Sciences de l'ingénieur / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Cette étude a pour objectif principal d’établir une stratégie de modélisation robuste, fiable et performante pour décrire des propagations de fissures d’échelle centimétrique en régime ductile dans des composants industriels. Le modèle d’endommagement de GTN écrit en grandes déformations est utilisé pour modéliser l’endommagement ductile. Ce modèle conduit généralement à une localisation de la déformation, conformément à l’expérience. L’échelle caractéristique de ce phénomène est introduite dans les équations de comportement via l’adoption d’une formulation non locale.Sur le plan numérique, ce modèle non local rend bien compte de la localisation dans une bande d’épaisseur donnée lorsqu’on raffine suffisamment le maillage. Par ailleurs, le problème de verrouillage numérique associé au caractère initialement isochore de la déformation plastique est limité en utilisant une formulation à base d’éléments finis mixtes. Enfin, la distorsion des éléments totalement cassés (i.e. sans rigidité apparente), qui pourrait nuire à la bonne convergence des simulations numériques, est traitée par une régularisation viscoélastique.L’ensemble de ces ingrédients sont appliqués pour simuler la propagation de fissure dans un milieu infini plasticité confinée), de sorte à établir un lien avec les approches globales en J-Δa. L’émoussement, l’amorçage et la (grande) propagation de fissure sont bien prédits. Le modèle est également appliqué à une tuyauterie métallique testée en grandeur réelle dans le cadre du projet européen Atlas+. Après une phase d’identification des paramètres sur éprouvette, les réponses globales et locales d’autres éprouvettes et du tube sont confrontés aux résultats expérimentaux. Ces résultats illustrent le degré de robustesse, de fiabilité et de performance qu’on peut attendre du modèle. / The major goal of this work is to establish a robust, reliable and efficient modeling technique so as to describe ductile tearing over a distance of several centimeters in industrial cases. The GTN damage model expressed in the context of finite strains is chosen to model ductile damage. Generally, the model leads to strain localization in agreement with experimental observations. The characteristic length scale of this phenomenon is introduced into the constitutive equations through the use of a nonlocal formulation.On a numerical ground, the nonlocal model controls the width of the localization band as soon as the mesh is sufficiently refined. Besides, the issue of volumetric-locking associated with plastic incompressibility is handled using a mixed finite element formulation. Finally, the distortion of broken elements (i.e. without any stiffness), which may affect the computational convergence of numerical simulations, is treated using a viscoelastic regularization.The improved GTN model is applied to simulate crack propagation under small-scale yielding conditions, so as to establish a relation with the global (J-Δa) approach. Crack tip blunting, crack initiation and (large) crack propagation are well captured. The model is also applied to a full-scale metallic pipe in the framework of the UE project Atlas+. After a phase of parameter calibration based on the experimental results on some small specimens, the global and local responses of other small specimens and of the full-scale pre-cracked pipe are compared with the experimental results. The results illustrates the robustness, the reliability and the efficiency of the current model.

Les travaux présentés dans ce mémoire portent sur l'étude, la conception et le développement de deux nouveaux prototypes de reconstruction tridimensionnelle, spécifique aux objets transparents. La numérisation 3D d'objets opaques est abondamment traitée dans la littérature et de nombreux systèmes sont d'ailleurs commercialisés. Cependant, lorsqu'il s'agit de la numérisation 3D d'objets transparents, les publications se font rares et aucun système de scanning n'existe sur le marché. La technique de numérisation de surfaces transparentes demeure compliquée et non maîtrisée à l'heure actuelle. L'opacification de la surface avant le scanning s'avère être la solution retenue dans le domaine du contrôle qualité. Néanmoins, cette alternative n'est pas optimale en raison du coût de traitements et du manque de précision éventuellement engendré. Afin de solutionner les problèmes de la numérisation d'objets transparents, nous avons développé deux approches dites non conventionnelles en étendant les méthodes existantes (dans le visible) aux longueurs d'onde dans lesquelles les sujets apparaissent opaques (IR et UV). Les deux méthodes de mesure sans contact retenues sont : - la reconstruction par polarisation dans l'IR, en vue de s'affranchir des problèmes d'inter-réflexions; - le scanning par laser UV, pour satisfaire les contraintes industrielles (précision, rapidité et coût) tout en résolvant de manière efficace le problème de réfraction. La première approche est fondée sur la réflexion spéculaire de l'objet dans l'IR tandis que la seconde exploite la propriété de l'objet à fluorescer sous l'irradiation UV. L'inexistence des lentilles télécentriques dans l'IR nous a conduits à adapter la reconstruction par polarisation dans l'IR à l'aide d'une lentille non télécentrique. Pour ce faire, une méthode d'approximation du modèle orthographique a été développée et une méthode de validation visant à améliorer la précision des résultats a été en outre intégrée dans le processus de reconstruction après l'étape d'estimation des paramètres de Stokes. Nos résultats sont très satisfaisants et attestent la faisabilité de la reconstruction par polarisation dans l'IR. Quatre configurations de système de scanning par triangulation ont été déployées afin d'exploiter la propriété de fluorescence des objets transparents irradiés sous un rayonnement UV. Des expérimentations visant à caractériser la fluorescence induite à la surface des objets considérés et à vérifier l'éligibilité de notre approche ont été menées. Les mesures spectroscopiques nous ont permis d'élaborer des critères de "tracking" (détection et localisation) des points fluorescents en présence des bruits inhérents à l'acquisition. Nous avons également mis au point des méthodes de validation des paramètres du modèle de reconstruction 3D estimés lors de la calibration, permettant ainsi d'optimiser la configuration du système de scanning. Les méthodes de "tracking" et de validation ont contribué considérablement à l'amélioration de la précision des résultats. Par ailleurs, la précision obtenue n'a jamais été atteinte au regard de ce que l'on trouve dans la littérature. / Two non-conventional methods for the 3D digitization of transparent objects via non-contact measurement are reported in this thesis. 3D digitization is a well acknowledged technique for opaque objects and various commercial solutions based on different measurement approaches are available in the market offering different types of resolution at different prices. Since these techniques require a diffused or lambertian surface, their application to transparent surfaces fails. Indeed, rays reflected by the transparent surface are perturbed by diverse inter-reflections induced by the refractive properties of the object. Therefore, in industrial applications like quality control, the transparent objects are powder coated followed by their digitization. However, this method is expensive and can also produce inaccuracies. Among the rare methods suggested in the literature, shape from polarization provides reliable results even though their accuracy had to be improved by coping with the inter-reflections. The two proposed solutions handle the extension of the existing methods to wavelengths beyond visible ranges: - shape from polarization in Infra Red (IR) range to deal with the above-mentioned inter-reflections; - scanning by Ultra Violet (UV) laser (based on triangulation scheme) to overcome the refraction problem that can be feasibly applied in industrial applications. The characteristic physical properties of transparent objects led us to explore the IR and UV ranges; since, transparent glass has strong absorption bands in the IR and UV ranges and therefore has opaque appearance. The first approach exploits the specular reflection of the considered object surface in IR and the second one exploits the fluorescence property of the object when irradiated with UV rays. Shape from polarization traditionally based on telecentric lenses had to be adapted with non-telecentric lenses to be used in the IR range. Thus, an approximation of the orthographic model is developed in this thesis while a validation method is implemented and integrated in the reconstruction process after Stokes parameters estimation, in order to improve the accuracy of the results. Some results of digitized objects are presented, which prove the feasibility of the shape from polarization method in the IR range to be used for transparent objects. A total of four configurations of the triangulation system are implemented in this thesis to exploit fluorescence produced by the UV laser scanning of the second approach. Experimental investigations aimed at characterizing the fluorescence are done. A specific fluorescence tracking method is carried out to deal with the inherent noise in the acquisitions. The uniqueness of the method relies on the criteria that are derived from the analysis of spectroscopic results. A validation method is made to optimize the configuration system while reducing the accuracy of reconstruction error. The results of some object digitization are presented with accuracies better than previously reported works.