O consumidor é o agente vulnerável na relação de consumo internacional. O processo de globalização se apresenta, para o consumidor, como uma globalização do consumo. A globalização do consumo se caracteriza pelo comércio e fornecimento internacional de produtos e serviços por empresários/fornecedores transnacionais/globais, utilizando marcas de renome mundial, acessíveis a todos os consumidores do planeta, e agrava a vulnerabilidade do consumidor no mercado. A proteção jurídica do consumidor internacional é uma necessidade que os sistemas jurídicos nacionais não se mostram aptos a prover adequadamente, assim como o Direito Internacional também não. A presente tese demonstra a deficiência da Ciência do Direito na proteção do consumidor no contexto da globalização; demonstra como o próprio comércio internacional é prejudicado ao não priorizar de maneira absoluta e efetiva a proteção do consumidor na OMC, bem como ao mostrar-se apático diante dos diferentes níveis de proteção proporcionada aos consumidores em cada diferente sistema jurídico nacional; demonstra, também, como a proteção do consumidor de maneira uniforme e global por um direito comum aos Estados é possível e será capaz de tornar mais eficiente economicamente o processo de globalização do consumo, ao encorajar a participação mais intensa do consumidor no mercado internacional; e propõe a construção de um novo ramo do Direito dedicado ao problema, o Direito Internacional do Consumidor (DIC), por meio da elaboração de uma Teoria do Direito Internacional do Consumidor. O Direito Internacional do Consumidor pretende ser um direito comum e universal de proteção ao consumidor, fundado em métodos, conceitos, institutos, normas e princípios jurídicos universais. O DIC dialogará com outros ramos do Direito Público e Privado, especialmente o Direito Internacional Econômico, o Direito Internacional do Comércio, o Direito Internacional Privado, o Direito Processual Civil Internacional, e o Direito do Consumidor. Pretende-se com isto atender ao ideal de promover o livre comércio internacional com respeito aos Direitos Humanos. / The consumer is the weak party in the cross-border consumer relation. The globalization process presents itself for the consumer as a globalization of consumers relations. The globalization of consumers relations is defined by international commerce and supply of products and services by transnational/global entrepreneurs/ suppliers, using global renowned brands names, available for all consumers of the planet, aggravating the consumers vulnerability in the market. The juridical international consumers protection is a necessity that has not been properly dealt with neither by the national legal systems nor by International Law. The present thesis shows the deficiency of Juridical Science to consumers protection in a globalization context; it shows how international commerce suffers harms when it does not prioritize the consumers protection in WTO, and when it has no reaction against different consumers protections levels by the distinct national legislation; it also shows, how consumers protection by a global and uniform law for all States is possible and can be more economically efficient for the process of globalization of consumers relations, because it encourages a intensive consumer participation in the international market; and proposes to build a new branch of law dedicated to the problem, the International Consumer Law (ICL), by a Theory of International Consumer Law. The International Consumer Law intends to be a general and universal law about consumers protection, based on universal methods, concepts, institutes, rules and principles. The ICL is going to dialogue with others branches of law, specially with International Economic Law, Global Trade Law, Private International Law (Conflict of Laws), Transnational Litigation Law, Consumer Protection Law and Products Liability Law. The intention of this thesis is to deal with the ideal of promoting free international trade taking into account respect for humans rights.

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is one of the factors that can influence the growth and development of the economy of a country, but on the other hand, it could have a negative effect if not regulated properly by the host country. States must ensure that FDI is properly regulated in the best interests of the country and the foreign investor itself. South Africa has reviewed its foreign investment legal framework and during this process, it terminated most of its bilateral investment treaties that previously regulated foreign investment in the country. In turn, it introduced the Protection of Protection of Investment Act that regulates both domestic and foreign investment. This study analyses the way in which national and international investment law affect FDI inflow and the economy of South Africa. The study also deals with the determinants of foreign investment in the host country and the extent to which they have an influence on the inflow of FDI. / Public, Constitutional and International Law / LL. M.

O consumidor é o agente vulnerável na relação de consumo internacional. O processo de globalização se apresenta, para o consumidor, como uma globalização do consumo. A globalização do consumo se caracteriza pelo comércio e fornecimento internacional de produtos e serviços por empresários/fornecedores transnacionais/globais, utilizando marcas de renome mundial, acessíveis a todos os consumidores do planeta, e agrava a vulnerabilidade do consumidor no mercado. A proteção jurídica do consumidor internacional é uma necessidade que os sistemas jurídicos nacionais não se mostram aptos a prover adequadamente, assim como o Direito Internacional também não. A presente tese demonstra a deficiência da Ciência do Direito na proteção do consumidor no contexto da globalização; demonstra como o próprio comércio internacional é prejudicado ao não priorizar de maneira absoluta e efetiva a proteção do consumidor na OMC, bem como ao mostrar-se apático diante dos diferentes níveis de proteção proporcionada aos consumidores em cada diferente sistema jurídico nacional; demonstra, também, como a proteção do consumidor de maneira uniforme e global por um direito comum aos Estados é possível e será capaz de tornar mais eficiente economicamente o processo de globalização do consumo, ao encorajar a participação mais intensa do consumidor no mercado internacional; e propõe a construção de um novo ramo do Direito dedicado ao problema, o Direito Internacional do Consumidor (DIC), por meio da elaboração de uma Teoria do Direito Internacional do Consumidor. O Direito Internacional do Consumidor pretende ser um direito comum e universal de proteção ao consumidor, fundado em métodos, conceitos, institutos, normas e princípios jurídicos universais. O DIC dialogará com outros ramos do Direito Público e Privado, especialmente o Direito Internacional Econômico, o Direito Internacional do Comércio, o Direito Internacional Privado, o Direito Processual Civil Internacional, e o Direito do Consumidor. Pretende-se com isto atender ao ideal de promover o livre comércio internacional com respeito aos Direitos Humanos. / The consumer is the weak party in the cross-border consumer relation. The globalization process presents itself for the consumer as a globalization of consumers relations. The globalization of consumers relations is defined by international commerce and supply of products and services by transnational/global entrepreneurs/ suppliers, using global renowned brands names, available for all consumers of the planet, aggravating the consumers vulnerability in the market. The juridical international consumers protection is a necessity that has not been properly dealt with neither by the national legal systems nor by International Law. The present thesis shows the deficiency of Juridical Science to consumers protection in a globalization context; it shows how international commerce suffers harms when it does not prioritize the consumers protection in WTO, and when it has no reaction against different consumers protections levels by the distinct national legislation; it also shows, how consumers protection by a global and uniform law for all States is possible and can be more economically efficient for the process of globalization of consumers relations, because it encourages a intensive consumer participation in the international market; and proposes to build a new branch of law dedicated to the problem, the International Consumer Law (ICL), by a Theory of International Consumer Law. The International Consumer Law intends to be a general and universal law about consumers protection, based on universal methods, concepts, institutes, rules and principles. The ICL is going to dialogue with others branches of law, specially with International Economic Law, Global Trade Law, Private International Law (Conflict of Laws), Transnational Litigation Law, Consumer Protection Law and Products Liability Law. The intention of this thesis is to deal with the ideal of promoting free international trade taking into account respect for humans rights.

Les dernières décennies ont témoigné d’un important accroissement des concentrations transnationales dans le monde et d’une multiplication des systèmes de contrôle des concentrations. Alors que les enjeux économiques revêtent désormais une dimension internationale, les mécanismes juridiques de régulation demeurent cantonnés à une échelle nationale ou régionale. En effet, la soumission d’une même opération de concentration à différents régimes de contrôle engendre plusieurs problématiques juridiques, dont le risque d’être confronté à des décisions contradictoires ou incohérentes rendues par différentes autorités de la concurrence. Ceci dit, il nous semble que des mécanismes juridiques pour réguler les concentrations transnationales s’imposent. S’agissant d’une réalité au niveau européen, la « régionalisation » du droit de la concurrence apporte une aide précieuse à ces problématiques. Au niveau mondial, différentes approches de solution sont envisageables. Cette thèse soutient, à court terme, la convergence des règles et des pratiques, afin de réduire les inconvénients associés au contrôle des concentrations transnationales, accompagnée, à long terme, par l’adoption de certaines règles contraignantes au sein de l’OMC. / In the past decades, the number of transnational mergers worldwide has significantly increased. Merger control systems follow the same trend and have proliferated during this period. While economic issues are globalized, legal mechanisms remain national or regional. The notification of one single merger to different merger control systems raises several legal issues, in particular with respect to the risk of achievingcontradictory or incoherent decisions from different competition agencies. Thus, revised legal mechanisms are required in order to adequately regulate transnational mergers. A“regionalization” of merger control, as set by the European experience, offers useful insights towards proposals to deal with these issues. In a global perspective, several alternative approaches are possible. This thesis supports, on the short-term, a permanent convergence of rules and practices to reduce problems related to transnational merger control, followed, on the long-term, by the adoption of certain binding rules within the WTO.

Cette thèse porte sur le recours à des mesures restrictives du commerce par le Canada comme moyen de lutte contre le travail dangereux des enfants, dans un contexte de mise en œuvre de la responsabilité internationale d’un État en cas de non respect de la Convention de l’Organisation internationale du travail nº 182 sur les pires formes de travail des enfants. Bien que la capacité d’imposer des telles mesures se rapportant à des situations de travail dangereux des enfants soit analysée, essentiellement, du point de vue du droit de l’Organisation internationale du commerce (OMC), cette étude reste circonscrite à l’application de la Convention OIT 182. De plus, cette thèse veut fournir une analyse prospective de nature spéculative portant sur l’opportunité de recourir à de telles mesures en discutant de leurs éventuelles conséquences sur les enfants qu’on vise à protéger par ce moyen. La première partie de la thèse s’intéresse à la légalité d’éventuelles sanctions commerciales imposées par le Canada afin d’amener un pays membre de l’OMC dont il importe des produits à respecter la Convention OIT 182. La légalité de ces sanctions est abordée tant du point de vue du régime général du GATT que de celui des exceptions générales. Du point de vue du régime général, l’analyse porte notamment sur l’article III de cet accord relatif au principe du traitement national. Une fois constatée leur illicéité à l’égard de l’article III du GATT, seul l’article XX de cet accord peut être invoqué pour permettre le recours à ces mesures. Nous nous attardons plus particulièrement aux exceptions de l’article XX relatives à la protection de la moralité publique et à celle de la protection de la vie et de la santé humaine. La thèse aborde les conditions auxquelles est assujetti le recours aux exceptions de l’article XX retenues comme pertinentes, notamment celles de la « nécessité » des mesures et du respect des compétences étatiques. En outre, cette étude analyse les conditions d’application des mesures restrictives du commerce découlant du préambule de l’article XX. En ce qui concerne l’exception relative à la moralité publique, cette notion est discutée dans un contexte national spécifique, soit celui du Canada. La seconde partie de la thèse s’intéresse à l’opportunité de recourir à des mesures commerciales restrictives et leurs conséquences éventuelles sur les enfants dont la protection est recherchée. La démarche, qui est éminemment prospective, prend la forme d’une étude de cas portant sur un secteur productif qui n’a jamais connu dans les faits des sanctions commerciales, soit la production floricole en Équateur. Il s’agit d’un secteur caractérisé par la présence d’enfants en situation de travail dangereux impliqués dans la production de biens destinés à l’exportation. Notre recherche est de type exploratoire. De ce fait, elle ne vise pas à formuler des conclusions fermes quant aux effets des sanctions, mais plutôt à déceler les effets potentiellement bénéfiques ou nuisibles que les mesures restrictives du commerce pourraient avoir sur les enfants exploités, ainsi qu’à évaluer la contribution des sanctions commerciales à la solution du problème. / This thesis focuses on Canada’s use of restrictive trade measures to fight against hazardous child labour, in the context of the implementation of the International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour (No. 182). Canada’s capacity to impose such measures in instances of hazardous child labour is analyzed primarily from the legal standpoint of the World Trade Organization (WTO), though the focus of this study is limited to the application of ILO Convention No. 182. In addition, this thesis aims to assess the appropriateness of such restrictive trade measures by discussing their potential consequences for working children. The first part of the thesis deals with the legality of prospective trade sanctions imposed by Canada to make a WTO trading partner comply with ILO Convention No. 182. The legality of these sanctions is discussed according to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) general rules as well as general exceptions. With regard to the general rules, our analysis focuses in particular on Article III, which pertains to national treatment. Once the illicitness of restrictive trade measures with respect to Article III of GATT is demonstrated, we turn to Article XX of this agreement as the only means to justify the measures. Specifically, we concentrate on the exceptions presented in Article XX related to the protection of public morals and the protection of life and human health. The notion of public morality is actualized within the Canadian national context. The thesis analyses the conditions limiting the use of Article XX’s relevant exceptions, including the "necessity" test and compliance with the rules of international law on state jurisdiction. Moreover, this study focuses on the rules related to the application of trade restrictive measures presented in Article XX’s chapeau. The second part of the thesis focuses on the appropriateness of using trade restrictions and their potential impact on the children whose protection is sought. The research consists in a case study on flower production in Ecuador, a sector characterized by the presence of children working under hazardous conditions and involved in producing goods for export. This sector has not yet been the target of commercial sanctions. Therefore, our research speculates on the effects of hypothetical sanctions and is exploratory in nature. The aim is not to reach firm conclusions about the effects of sanctions, but rather to identify the potentially beneficial or harmful effects that restrictive trade measures might have on exploited children, as well as to assess the potential contribution of such measures in solving the problem.

Cette thèse porte sur le recours à des mesures restrictives du commerce par le Canada comme moyen de lutte contre le travail dangereux des enfants, dans un contexte de mise en œuvre de la responsabilité internationale d’un État en cas de non respect de la Convention de l’Organisation internationale du travail nº 182 sur les pires formes de travail des enfants. Bien que la capacité d’imposer des telles mesures se rapportant à des situations de travail dangereux des enfants soit analysée, essentiellement, du point de vue du droit de l’Organisation internationale du commerce (OMC), cette étude reste circonscrite à l’application de la Convention OIT 182. De plus, cette thèse veut fournir une analyse prospective de nature spéculative portant sur l’opportunité de recourir à de telles mesures en discutant de leurs éventuelles conséquences sur les enfants qu’on vise à protéger par ce moyen. La première partie de la thèse s’intéresse à la légalité d’éventuelles sanctions commerciales imposées par le Canada afin d’amener un pays membre de l’OMC dont il importe des produits à respecter la Convention OIT 182. La légalité de ces sanctions est abordée tant du point de vue du régime général du GATT que de celui des exceptions générales. Du point de vue du régime général, l’analyse porte notamment sur l’article III de cet accord relatif au principe du traitement national. Une fois constatée leur illicéité à l’égard de l’article III du GATT, seul l’article XX de cet accord peut être invoqué pour permettre le recours à ces mesures. Nous nous attardons plus particulièrement aux exceptions de l’article XX relatives à la protection de la moralité publique et à celle de la protection de la vie et de la santé humaine. La thèse aborde les conditions auxquelles est assujetti le recours aux exceptions de l’article XX retenues comme pertinentes, notamment celles de la « nécessité » des mesures et du respect des compétences étatiques. En outre, cette étude analyse les conditions d’application des mesures restrictives du commerce découlant du préambule de l’article XX. En ce qui concerne l’exception relative à la moralité publique, cette notion est discutée dans un contexte national spécifique, soit celui du Canada. La seconde partie de la thèse s’intéresse à l’opportunité de recourir à des mesures commerciales restrictives et leurs conséquences éventuelles sur les enfants dont la protection est recherchée. La démarche, qui est éminemment prospective, prend la forme d’une étude de cas portant sur un secteur productif qui n’a jamais connu dans les faits des sanctions commerciales, soit la production floricole en Équateur. Il s’agit d’un secteur caractérisé par la présence d’enfants en situation de travail dangereux impliqués dans la production de biens destinés à l’exportation. Notre recherche est de type exploratoire. De ce fait, elle ne vise pas à formuler des conclusions fermes quant aux effets des sanctions, mais plutôt à déceler les effets potentiellement bénéfiques ou nuisibles que les mesures restrictives du commerce pourraient avoir sur les enfants exploités, ainsi qu’à évaluer la contribution des sanctions commerciales à la solution du problème. / This thesis focuses on Canada’s use of restrictive trade measures to fight against hazardous child labour, in the context of the implementation of the International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour (No. 182). Canada’s capacity to impose such measures in instances of hazardous child labour is analyzed primarily from the legal standpoint of the World Trade Organization (WTO), though the focus of this study is limited to the application of ILO Convention No. 182. In addition, this thesis aims to assess the appropriateness of such restrictive trade measures by discussing their potential consequences for working children. The first part of the thesis deals with the legality of prospective trade sanctions imposed by Canada to make a WTO trading partner comply with ILO Convention No. 182. The legality of these sanctions is discussed according to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) general rules as well as general exceptions. With regard to the general rules, our analysis focuses in particular on Article III, which pertains to national treatment. Once the illicitness of restrictive trade measures with respect to Article III of GATT is demonstrated, we turn to Article XX of this agreement as the only means to justify the measures. Specifically, we concentrate on the exceptions presented in Article XX related to the protection of public morals and the protection of life and human health. The notion of public morality is actualized within the Canadian national context. The thesis analyses the conditions limiting the use of Article XX’s relevant exceptions, including the "necessity" test and compliance with the rules of international law on state jurisdiction. Moreover, this study focuses on the rules related to the application of trade restrictive measures presented in Article XX’s chapeau. The second part of the thesis focuses on the appropriateness of using trade restrictions and their potential impact on the children whose protection is sought. The research consists in a case study on flower production in Ecuador, a sector characterized by the presence of children working under hazardous conditions and involved in producing goods for export. This sector has not yet been the target of commercial sanctions. Therefore, our research speculates on the effects of hypothetical sanctions and is exploratory in nature. The aim is not to reach firm conclusions about the effects of sanctions, but rather to identify the potentially beneficial or harmful effects that restrictive trade measures might have on exploited children, as well as to assess the potential contribution of such measures in solving the problem.