<p>This report deals with the performance of a batch flow treatment of landfillleachate compared with a continuous flow system. The parameters in focus were total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), BOD5 and COD. The pilot-scale experiment used eight barrels with a volume of 150 liters. Each barrel was constructed differently concerning its flow, its bed material grain size and its presence of plants or not. Four of the barrels worked in batch mode, thus four in continuous flow mode. The continuous flow systems were provided with water trough small tubes with regulators. Samples were collected once a week and analysis was carried out yielding results of BOD5, COD, TKN, pH and conductivity of the effluents. The same parameters were analyzed for the influent every week. The result shows that a wetland is a good way of treating the landfill leachate as the BOD5, COD and TKN decreases. Moreover the color, which contravenes with legislative demands in the region, was distinctly decreased. Yet the report failed to show a significant difference between batch loaded and continuous flow wetlands. More studies have to be carried out in order to determine or contradict whether batch mode in fact provides a better treatment.</p>

This report deals with the performance of a batch flow treatment of landfillleachate compared with a continuous flow system. The parameters in focus were total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), BOD5 and COD. The pilot-scale experiment used eight barrels with a volume of 150 liters. Each barrel was constructed differently concerning its flow, its bed material grain size and its presence of plants or not. Four of the barrels worked in batch mode, thus four in continuous flow mode. The continuous flow systems were provided with water trough small tubes with regulators. Samples were collected once a week and analysis was carried out yielding results of BOD5, COD, TKN, pH and conductivity of the effluents. The same parameters were analyzed for the influent every week. The result shows that a wetland is a good way of treating the landfill leachate as the BOD5, COD and TKN decreases. Moreover the color, which contravenes with legislative demands in the region, was distinctly decreased. Yet the report failed to show a significant difference between batch loaded and continuous flow wetlands. More studies have to be carried out in order to determine or contradict whether batch mode in fact provides a better treatment.

Eutrophication was recognized in the early 1900's and results in severe algal blooms, increased biomass production and eventually leads to an altered ecosystem. In Mälardalen we find the most eutrophic lakes. Most of the applied phosphorus and nitrogen into seas and oceans comes from agriculture, and the nutrients losses are affected by local weather conditions and soil type. Guidelines for storage and distribution of manure were introduced in the 80s, and the rules were strengthened January 1, 2010. Localities and previous county administrations can whether there are special reasons, grant an exemption for manure application during winter-periods despite the current ban. In this essay I have examined how many exemptions of manure application that has been granted at the Sagån river, and what implications it has for the eutrophication of Lake Mälaren. Sagån’s catchment area extends through Enköping, Sala, Heby, Västerås and Uppsala. Since 2000, 23 waivers of manure application have been granted, most of these deviations have occurred on snow-covered ground or when the weather change considerably. This means that much of the nutriment in the manure went down to the nearby water when the snow melted. Computations were made In order to find out how much phosphorus was spread each time. The conclusion is that the pig manure contains significantly more phosphorus, meaning greater phosphorus losses. However, these calculations are only estimates. Several farmers were contacted to find out what they think about the regulation of the management and application of manure. They believe that the new legislation does not pose a problem for them. But farmers with small distribution areas in relation to the number of animals could have some problems.

This paper deals with diet and gender in the early roman iron age in Sweden. Human bone and tooth material from the Iron Age cemetery at Bjärby in Kastlösa parish on the island of Öland have been analysed for stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes. 21 individuals were sampled. Where possible 4 samples were taken from each individual, from the first, second and third molar respectively and from one compact bone. By doing so it is possible, at least in theory, to trace intra-individual diets throughout life. In total, 64 samples were analysed by isotope ratio mass spectrometer. The low [delta]13C values indicate a diet based mostly on terrestrial resources, while the high [delta]15N values indicate some significant marine input. This discrepancy may be explained by an intake of freshwater fish or meat from suckling animals. The isotope values do not indicate any significant dietary reliance on cereals. Some gender differences in diet were observed. The [delta]15N values of the women were higher than those of the men, indicating a higher tropic level throughout life. The third molar [delta]13C values of the men were higher than those of the women, indicating a somewhat more substantial marine input during the teenage years.

HYPE-modellen utvecklades som ett hjälpmedel för att uppfylla målet om att alla svenska vattendrag ska ha uppnått åtminstone god ekologisk status år 2015, enligt EU:s ramdirektiv för vatten. I HYPE-modellen delas avrinningsområdet in i markklasser, som definieras utifrån kombinationen av jordart och markanvändning/marktäckeklass. I modellen finns det många parametrar. Vissa av dem är generella för ett större område eller kan hämtas ifrån tidigare forskning, medan andra måste kalibreras för varje avrinningsområde. De parametrar som kalibreras beror i de flesta fall antingen av jordart eller av markanvändning eller marktäckeklass. Syftet i den här undersökningen var att kalibrera HYPE-modellen för ett mindre avrinningsområde samt undersöka avrinningsvägar och utvärdera den utförda kalibreringen. Det undersökta avrinningsområdet kallas Krycklan och ligger i Vindeln kommun i Västerbottens län. Det är ett avrinningsområde som huvudsakligen består av skog, men även innehåller inslag av jordbruksmark och myrmark. Kalibreringen gjordes i två steg, först för ett mindre delavrinningsområde och sedan för hela avrinningsområdet. Två avrinningskalibreringar gjordes för det mindre delavrinningsområdet. Kalibrering A utfördes med ansatsen att få en så hög anpassning som möjligt, med utgångspunkt i det statistiska måttet NSE, vilket är kvadratsumman av residualerna dividerat i den totala kvadratsumman. Kalibrering B gjordes i samråd med SMHI om rimlig storlek på parametervärdena, men gav ett sämre värde på NSE. För hela avrinningsområdet utfördes endast en kalibrering. Ett försök till modellering av kväve- och fosforhalter i avrinnande vatten gjordes även. Resultatet visade att det gick att få en kalibrering av modellen att följa uppmätt flöde väl, även på mikroskala. Skillnaden mellan kalibrering A och kalibrering B var att den första bättre fångade uppmätta flödestoppar, men gav ett för högt basflöde. För både blöta och torra år gick det att få en hög anpassning, men kalibreringen fungerade generellt sätt bättre för blöta år. Det var betydligt svårare för modellen att fånga variationen i kväve- och fosforkoncentrationer, men samband mellan modell och mätvärdena kunde ändå ses. / The HYPE-model was developed as an aid of achieving the goal of all Swedish watercourses should have reached at least well ecological status by the year of 2015, according to the EU Water Framework Directive. In the HYPE model, the catchment is divided into soil classes which are a combination of soil and land use. In the model, there are many parameters. Some of them are general for a larger area or can be obtained from previous research, while others must be calibrated for each catchment. The parameters to be calibrated depend in the most cases either on soil or land uses. The aim of this study was to calibrate and evaluate the HYPE model for a small catchment. The investigated catchment is called Krycklan and is located in the municipality of Vindeln in the province Västerbotten. The catchment consists mostly of forest, but there are also some agriculture and mire. The calibration was made in two steps, first on a small sub-basin and then to the entire basin. Two runoff calibrations were made for the smaller sub-basin. Calibration A was performed with the approach to obtain as high fit as possible, on the basis of the statistical measure NSE, which is the quadrate of the residuals divided in the quadrate of the total quadrate sum. Calibration B was made after consultation with SMHI (The Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute) of the adequate size of the parameter values. For the entire basin only one calibration was performed. An attempt at modelling of nitrogen and phosphorus concentration in runoff was also made. The results showed that it was possible to get the model to follow the measured flow well, even at the micro scale. The difference between calibration A and calibration B was that the first one was better to catch the measured flow peaks, but resulted in too high base flow. For both wet and dry years it was possible to obtain a high fit, but the model generally got better for the wet years. There was much more difficult for the model to capture variation in nitrogen and phosphorus, but the connection between the model and the measurements could still be seen.

The last hundred years humans have drastically changed the amount of available nitrogen in nature. Today human activities release twice as much available nitrogen as all natural processes are doing together. We also have degraded nature´s possibilities to take care of nitrogen through the draining of wetlands and straightening of rivers. In order to regain the potential of nitrogen retention in the water systems there now requires a reshape of the landscape we live in. A planned expansion of the mining activities in Garpenberg, Dalarna, would double the content of nitrogen in the waters below the mine. Water that already contains a high amount of nitrogen. To reduce the risk of eutrophication and increased pressure on the content of oxygen in the watercourses, in this study I investigate where a wetland with refine of nitrogen as a purpose can be located and constructed in the system of Forsån. By topographic studies one appropriate area where the river of Garpenberg flows past Krommetsbo is found. The potential of the area is supported by an inventory of species which are likely to colonize the wetland. The Krommetsbo-wetland will be able to contribute to the reduction of nitrogen in the lower parts of the system. However, additional measures are needed to change the situation in the upper parts of the system.

<p>I denna uppsats undersöks det hur det fungerar med enskilda avlopp utanför kommunens VA-nät. Hur enskilda avlopp är uppbyggda och hur de fungerar. Varför man bör ha avloppsrening, och vilka lagar och regler som styr enskilda avlopp. Jag utreder vidare varför man ska jobba för en ökad rening av avlopp och varför man ska jobba mot att uppnå ett uthålligt samhälle.</p><p>Uppsatsen har en teoridel som handlar om hur och varför vi ska sträva efter en uthållig samhällsutveckling. En strävan som kommuner som Söderköping har när dom försöker få människor att byta till hållbara VA-system.</p><p>Med dom här funderingarna som bakgrund och ett antal frågeställningar har jag skrivit en fyllig bakgrund som går igenom Östersjöns problematik och även relevant information om enskilda avlopp. Jag går igenom varför vi behöver en bra rening och hur man kan jobba för att uppnå en bättre rening. Bakgrunden ger en grund för att jag ska kunna genomföra min undersökning på ett bra sätt.</p><p>I resultat delen undersöker jag hur Söderköpings kommun och Allren arbetar med enskilda avlopp. Jag valde Söderköpings kommun för att det är en kustnära kommun som av den anledningen alltid brottas med att inte få ut läckage av näring i Östersjön. Och det märks att dom har tagit detta ämne på allvar då dom jobbar för att skapa recirkulation av näringen genom exempelvis urinsorterande system.</p><p>I slutet av uppsatsen har jag diskussions delar där jag flätar samman uppsatsen och för en diskussion om vad jag har kommit fram till och vad jag har för åsikter om arbetet med enskilda avlopp.</p><p>Uppsatsen avslutas med att jag har med en didaktik del. En didaktisk del som gör det möjligt att lära ut de kunskaper man besitter efter en uppsats.</p>

Release of different nitrogen compounds can cause eutrophication in lakes and rivers whichcan lead to oxygen-free environments in bottom water and in the sediment and can in turnlead to fish-deaths. Ammonium can be toxic to biota and nitrate can in high concentrationeven be toxic to humans. WHO has released a limit for nitrate concentration in drinking waterof 10mg/l. The LKAB mine in Kiruna is the largest underground iron mine in the world and isprospecting, mining and refining iron ore, with an annual production of around 28 milliontons. Release of different nitrogen compounds as a result of the explosives used during themining operations has been a known problem for some time; however the processes affectingnitrogen during the water transport have never been fully investigated. The main objective of this MSc thesis is to determine if changes in nitrogen and oxygenisotope composition can be used as a tracer for nitrogen transformation processes in the minewater at LKABs underground mine in Kiruna. Water samples were collected at key points in the water transport system and were analyzedfor isotopic composition. Isotopic and chemical data revealed two different sources of nitrateand ammonium, undetonated explosives and leachate from waste rocks. Three differentnitrogen changing processes affecting concentration of nitrate and ammonium were found:ammonium volatilization, nitrification and sorption. It was not possible to quantify theseprocesses individually. No processes which decrease the nitrate concentration were found.

Nitrogen (N) deposition has increased globally over the last 150 years and further increase is predicted for the future. Nitrogen is an important nutrient for lichens, involved in many processes in both photobiont and mycobiont.  However, N can be a stressor, causing many lichens and lichen communities to disappear with increased deposition. The objective of this thesis was to investigate the response of epiphytic lichens to increased N load. This was done by simulating an increased N deposition to lichens in a boreal forest with low background N, including both short term studies with transplanted lichens and long term studies of naturally established lichens. Alectoria sarmentosa was used as a model species for a N-sensitive lichens and Platismatia glauca as a relatively more N-tolerant lichen. Nitrogen deposition was simulated by daily spraying during the growing season with water and isotopically labeled ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3). In Paper I, I found that when N is supplied in realistic doses (equivalent to deposition of 0.6, 6, 12.5, 25 and 50 kg N ha-1), there were no significant differences in uptake of NO3- or NH4+ in either of the lichen species. The results in Paper II indicate that A. samentosa may be limited by phosphorous (P) and not N limited as expected. That study highlights the importance of P, when studying the effects of N deposition, since P can both mitigate and intensify the negative effects of N on epiphytic lichens. Paper III shows that four years of simulated N deposition caused an alteration of the epiphytic lichen community, since A. sarmentosa decreased in the highest N loads (25 and 50 kg ha-1 year-1), Bryoria spp. decreased to 12.5 kg N and higher loads and Hypogymnia physodes decreased over time for all treatments except in 12.5 kg ha-1, where it only decreased during the first treatment year and then increased after 2007.  The abundance of Platismatia glauca increased over time, independent of treatment. As hypothesized, responses to the treatments differed among species, reflecting their different N optima. In paper IV, the effects of N on carbon-based secondary compounds were studied. None of the studied species (P. glauca, A. sarmentosa, Lobaria scrobiculata and Xanthoria aureola) reduced their concentration of secondary compounds during the experimental period, but in P. glauca the concentration of all compounds were significantly lower in N treated thalli compared with control thalli. The results are consistent with a high degree of constitutive defence in three of the four studied lichens, and we conclude that all four studied lichens seem to have a robust chemical defence system despite considerable manipulation of the environmental conditions. However, we don't know if these lichens are able to keep up the high protection level over longer periods comprising a number of years when more new tissue is formed. In conclusion, long term experiments are necessary to understand lichen response to environmental changes.

Konstruktionsbränder kan idag orsaka stora problem för räddningstjänsten. Släckningsarbeten vid konstruktionsbränder brukar idag involvera släckmedel som bygger på vattenbaserade medel. Detta medför att primära skador kan begränsas, men istället uppstår problemet med sekundära skador som mögel eller vattenskador. Idag finns det flertalet släckmedel som används men det finns inga dokumenterade tillfällen där flytande kväve och/eller koldioxid används vid konstruktionsbränder. Branschen har istället funnit användningsområden för flytande kväve vid gruvbränder med flertalet lyckade insatser. Flytande kväve och koldioxidsläckare är båda kylande släckmedel som vid användning uppnår mycket låga temperaturer. Släckmedlen släcker på liknande sätt, båda kyler till en viss del, men den primära släckkällan är kvävning. Flytande kväve får en avsevärd volymutveckling vid fasövergång från flytande till gas. Gasen tränger undan syret i den brandhärjade konstruktionen och kan därmed släcka branden. Koldioxid verkar på samma sätt, kvävande, men i detta fall övergår den kondenserade gasen till fast fas (torr-is) vid aktivering som sedan sublimerar till gas och kväver branden. För att undersöka släckmedlens förmåga att bekämpa konstruktionsbränder samt återantändningsskyddet vid användning, har åtta konstruktioner byggts. De fristående konstruktionerna ska efterlikna ett regelfack från en väggkonstruktion. Vid försöken har fyra konstruktioner använts till att undersöka flytande kväve och fyra konstruktioner för att undersöka koldioxid. Av dessa åtta användes två som testkonstruktioner i syftet att bestämma metod för applicering av släckmedel och anläggning av brand i konstruktionen. För att anlägga en brand i konstruktionerna antändes de i det nedre högra hörnet med hjälp av en propanbrännare. Vid fyra försök applicerades släckmedlen i mitten av konstruktionen i ett hål som borrats för att nå innandömet. Vid de andra två konstruktionerna applicerades släckmedlen vid hålet där branden anlades. För att mäta de temperaturer som uppstod i konstruktionerna placerades fem termoelement i varje konstruktion. I de tre försök där flytande kväve applicerades sjönk temperaturen drastiskt och efter en timme, när försöken avslutades, registrerade inget termoelement temperaturer höga nog för att en återantändning skulle kunna ske. I de tre försök där koldioxid applicerades släcktes två av tre konstruktioner och den tredje återantändes. Fem av sex försök uppvisades en trend där temperaturen låg mellan 12 – 56 °C när försöken avslutades och där temperaturen fortfarande sjönk. En trend påvisades för bägge släckmedlen, där de dröjde kvar i konstruktionen när försöken avslutades, efter cirka en timme. Släckmedlen kunde därmed under en lång tid förångas och påverka den brandhärjade konstruktionen och motverka återantändning. Slutsatsen av detta projekt är att flytande kväve och koldioxid verkar lovande som släckmedel vid konstruktionsbränder. Fler försök bör dock utföras för att styrka resultatet innan ett välgrundat uttalande kan göras. / Today structural fires can cause big problems for the rescue services. Extinguishing structural fires usually depends on methods involving water based extinguishers. These methods entails that the primary damages can be limited although secondary damages like mold or water damage may arise. Today there are several fire extinguishers that are used in the industry but few documented occasions have been found where liquid nitrogen or carbon dioxide is used on structural fires. Liquid nitrogen has long been used for mining fires with success. What liquid nitrogen and carbon dioxide in extinguishers have in common is that they are both cooling agents which upon activation reach very low temperatures. These extinguishing agents both put out a fire in a similar way, they both chill when applied, but that is not the primary source. The primary source of extinguishing comes by suffocating the fire by removing all the surrounding oxygen. The volumetric growth of gas between phase transitions displaces the oxygen present in the fire ravaged construction and thereby extinguishes the fire. Eight constructions were built to test these extinguishing agents and their potential for extinguishing construction fires. The purpose of these constructions was to simulate one part of an entire wall. To perform these tests, four out of the eight constructions were used to examine liquid nitrogen and the other four were used for carbon dioxide fire extinguishers. Two constructions were used as test constructions with the purpose to test different methods for the extinguishing agents as well as setting fire to the construction. A propane burner was used in the lower right corner of the construction to ignite it. The extinguishing agents were applied to the center of the constructions in four tests. In two tests the extinguishing agents were directed at the base of the fire in the lower right corner. A total of thirty thermocouples were used, divided evenly among the six tests that recorded data, with five thermocouples being placed in each construction. In the three tests with liquid nitrogen as extinguishing agent, the temperature dropped drastically. The temperatures registered in the wall by the thermocouples were not high enough to pose any risks for a fire to resurface at the end of the tests. In the tests using carbon dioxide as an extinguishing agent the fire managed to resurface in one out of three tests. In five out of six tests the thermocouples registered temperatures in the range of 12 – 56 °C and continually declining. Both of the extinguishers displayed similar behavior when observed, namely that the extinguishing medias could be observed remaining in the constructions long after the tests ended. This means that the extinguishing agents could evaporate during an extended period of time and counteract any flames from resurfacing. To conclude this report, the good qualities these extinguisher agents exhibit implies that they work well as extinguishing agents to combat construction fires. More experiments should be performed to strengthen the results from this project.