The present thesis gives a summary of results obtained through theoretical and experimental studies of systems with relevance to copper smelting and converting. Many chemical elements are involved in the copper production pro­cesses and a detailed experimental study would be very time- consuming and expensive. A complicating fact is also the corrosivity of the liquid phases towards container material. A powerful alternative is equilibrium calculations, in which models for the liquid phases as well as reliable basic thermodynamic data are needed. In the present thesis, a generalized structure based model for liquid silicates was developed and used in assessments of the sys­tems PbO-SiO2, Fe-O-SiO2, CuO0.5-SÌO2 and Cu-Fe-O-SiO2. In the model, the non-ideal silicate melt is treated as an ideal solu­tion but containing a few complexes. The PbO-Si02 melt could be described by introducing the complexes Pb3Si207, Pb4Si4010 and Pb13Si12O37 in addition to the components PbO and Pb2Si04. The species considered in the Fe-O-SiO2 melt were FeO, FeO1.5, Fe2Si04, Fe3Si207, Fe3Si6O15 and in the CUO0.5-SiO2 melt CuO0.5 ana CU4SiO4. Trie calculated phase diagrams, the activities of me­tal oxides and the oxygen partial pressures were all in good agreement with the published data. Two of the papers in this thesis concern the determination of Gibbs free energies for Cu2S(s,l) and Ca2Fe2O5(s) through emf measurements utilizing a solid electrolyte. Activities and termi­nal solubilities in the solid solution [Fet,Ca]0 were also deter­mined. The results obtained from the quantitative equilibrium calcula­tions for conventional copper smelting and converting were used to outline the overall reactions taking place and the outcome of changes in process parameters. Comparison with observed values, however, showed that the copper and magnetite contents in slag were calculated too low. These discrepancies could be completely explained by using a non-equilibrium approach in which the con­verter was assumed to consist of several segments with concentra­tion gradients between the segments. / digitalisering@umu.se

PhD (Geography) / Department of Geography and Geo-Information Sciences / Improved access to modern affordable, sustainable and reliable energy supply is fundamental in the development of any economy and in the achievement of sustainable development goals. However, energy as a resource is increasingly and becoming scare in many countries and subsequently expensive, with a substantial impact on the socio-economic progress, especially in any country that lacks the financial, physical, social and human capital to secure its energy supply. Energy can also be produced though the anaerobic fermentation of biological waste, such as animal excrement, which is methane-rich. Fermentation also produces a nutrient-rich digestate. Biogas can be used for domestic purposes, such as cooking and heating. Furthermore, it can be converted into electricity. Biogas technology is of particular significance in rural households, where energy crisis are common. This thesis therefore aimed at developing an adoption and sustainable utilisation framework of biogas as an alternative source of energy for greenhouse gases emission reduction in the Limpopo Province. The sample involved 72 households with biogas digesters, which were purposively sampled and 128 households without digesters, which were randomly selected. The study was based on the primary data that were elicited using open and closed-ended questionnaires. Empirically, the results of this thesis developed a sustainable, simplified, appropriate and comprehensive framework for biogas adoption and utilisation, including an analysis of important factors that could influence the adoption of this desired technology, for cost-effectiveness and sustainability. / NRF

Les dispositifs thermoélectriques, basés sur la conversion d'énergie thermique, offrent des perspectives intéressantes pour le développement de systèmes autonomes. Les principaux défis pour le développement de telles technologies reposent sur l'obtention de dispositifs flexibles, écologiquement et économiquement viables pouvant alimenter des appareils électroniques à faible consommation d'énergie. Le but de cette thèse a donc été de proposer une méthodologie pour l'analyse globale de dispositifs thermoélectriques pour des applications à température ambiante. Dans un premier temps, une approche multi-échelle pour la modélisation de dispositifs thermoélectriques a été développée. A cet effet, trois niveaux d'abstraction ont été considérés. A l'échelle du système, un modèle compact a été développé afin d'évaluer les performances du dispositif dans son environnement. A l'échelle du dispositif, des prototypes virtuels de TEG ont été évalués par le biais de la simulation numérique. A l'échelle des matériaux, la DFT combinée à une approche semi-classique basée sur l'équation de transport de Boltzmann ont été utilisées afin de calculer les propriétés électroniques. La tétraédrite et la famatinite ont été sélectionnées en raison de leurs propriétés prometteuses à température ambiante ainsi que de leur abondance et faible coût. Dans un second temps, des travaux expérimentaux sur la synthèse de nanoparticules de Cu-Sb-S ont été menés. Des nanoparticules quasi-monodisperses avec des tailles inférieures à 50 nm ont été obtenues grâce à la mise au point d'un procédé basé sur la synthèse solvothermale avec surfactant, une méthode faible coût et facilement adaptable à grande échelle. / Thermoelectric devices, capitalizing on waste heat conversion, offer good prospects for the development of autonomous systems. The main challenges for technology development are to obtain flexible, environmentally friendly and low-cost thermoelectric devices with performances sufficient enough to power small electronic devices. The aim of this thesis was thus to propose a methodology for the global analysis of thermoelectric devices for ambient temperature applications. The developed methodology enables the evaluation of key parameters impact on the global system. First, a multiscale approach for thermoelectric devices modelling is developed. In this scope, three parallel levels of modeling are addressed. At the system level, a compact model is developed in order to evaluate overall system efficiency as a function of the thermal environment. At the device level, virtual prototypes of printed devices are built and their performances are evaluated via a finite-element simulation tool. Low temperature gradient has to be dealt with by appropriate architecture design. At the material level, quantum DFT is used in conjunction with semi-classical approach using Boltzmann transport theory to calculate electronic properties. Tetrahedrite and famatinite compounds are chosen due to their promising thermoelectric properties at room temperature and their relative abundance and low cost. Secondly, an experimental work has been conducted on the synthesis of sulphide nanoparticles. Quasi-monodisperse nanoparticles with a size not exceeding 50 nm have successfully been fabricated via a low cost and easily scalable surfactant assisted solvothermal technique.

A study of three novel solar cells is presented, all of which incorporate a low-dimensional quantum confined component in a bid to enhance device performance. Firstly, intermediate band solar cells (IBSCs) based on InAs quantum dots (QDs) in a GaAs p-i-n structure are studied. The aim is to isolate the InAs QDs from the GaAs conduction band by surrounding them with wider band gap aluminium arsenide. An increase in open circuit voltage (V_OC) and decrease in short circuit current (J_sc) is observed, causing no overall change in power conversion efficiency. Dark current - voltage measurements show that the increase in V_OC is due to reduced recombination. Electroreflectance and external quantum efficiency measurements attribute the decrease in J_sc primarily to a reduction in InGaAs states between the InAs QD and GaAs which act as an extraction pathway for charges in the control device. A colloidal quantum dot (CQD) bulk heterojunction (BHJ) solar cell composed of a blend of PbS CQDs and ZnO nanoparticles is examined next. The aim of the BHJ is to increase charge separation by increasing the heterojunction interface. Different concentration ratios of each phase are tested and show no change in J_sc, due primarily to poor overall charge transport in the blend. V_OC increases for a 30 wt% ZnO blend, and this is attributed largely to a reduction in shunt resistance in the BHJ devices. Finally, graphene is compared to indium tin oxide (ITO) as an alternative transparent electrode in squaraine/ C₇₀ solar cells. Due to graphene’s high transparency, graphene devices have enhanced J_sc, however, its poor sheet resistance increases the series resistance through the device, leading to a poorer fill factor. V_OC is raised by using MoO₃ as a hole blocking layer. Absorption in the squaraine layer is found to be more conducive to current extraction than in the C₇₀ layer. This is due to better matching of exciton diffusion length and layer thickness in the squaraine and to the minority carrier blocking layer adjacent to the squaraine being more effective than the one adjacent to the C₇₀.

In this work, the structural, electronic, and optical properties of CdS nanoparticles with sizes up to 4nm have been calculated using density-functional theory (DFT). Inaccuracies in the description of the unoccupied states of the applied density-functional based tight-binding method (DFTB) are overcome by a new SCF-DFTB method. Density-functional-based calculations employing linear-response theory have been performed on cadmium sulfide nanoparticles considering different stoichiometries, underlying crystal structures (zincblende, wurtzite, rocksalt), particle shapes (spherical, cuboctahedral, tetrahedral), and saturations (unsaturated, partly saturated, completely saturated). For saturated particles, the calculated onset excitations are strong excitonic. The quantum-confinement effect in the lowest excitation is visible as the excitation energy decreases towards the bulk band gap with increasing particle size. Dangling bonds at unsaturated surface atoms introduce trapped surface states which lie below the lowest excitations of the completely saturated particles. The molecular orbitals (MOs), that are participating in the excitonic excitations, show the shape of the angular momenta of a hydrogen atom (s, p). Zincblende- and wurtzite-derived particles show very similar spectra, whereas the spectra of rocksalt-derived particles are rather featureless. Particle shapes that confine the orbital wavefunctions strongly (tetrahedron) give rise to less pronounced spectra with lower oscillator strengths. Finally, a very good agreement of the calculated data to experimentally available spectra and excitation energies is found.

Abstract Polymetallic (Pb-Zn-Cu-Ag-Au-Sb-As-Bi-Cd-Te-Se-Ge…) quartz veins occur in an area from Eidsvoll in southeastern Norway to west of LakeVänern in southwestern Sweden. They most likely formed during the waning stage of the c. 1 Ga Sveconorwegian orogeny. In Värmskog parish, Värmland county, several mineralized quartz veins of different types are known. Of these, three of the larger vein deposits, Vegerbol, Karlsbol and Södra Gärdsjön, have been investigated. Despite a history of mining activities (mostly for silver) and exploration from the mid-1800s up until the present day, details about their ore mineralogy have remained essentially unknown. In order to classify and characterize them better, the present study was undertaken. The main ore minerals in the veins are galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite sensu lato and pyrite. Additionally, this investigation showed the occurrence of an array of silver-bearing phases such as argentian tetrahedrite to freibergite, native silver, polybasite, pyrargyrite, jalpaite, aguilarite, cervelleite, hessite and matildite. These are the main and accessory silver carriers in the studied deposits. Gold (argentiferous) was also found, as well as the nickel-cobalt sulphide siegenite.    The silver contents of the tetrahedrites may vary within one deposit, ranging from tetrahedrite sensu stricto to freibergite. A weak positive correlation occurs between silver and iron in the tetrahedrites. Cadmium was found both in the tetrahedrites and in the sphalerites. Many sphalerites, however, are very pure ZnS. The complex accessory ore mineralogy, including native gold as well as tellurium and selenium-bearing phases (Vegerbol), makes these vein deposits comparable to mineralized veins to the west and southwest of the Värmskog area.    Combining mineralogical and textural observations with previous studies, the vein mineralizations most likely formed during a change in tectonic regime, in recurrently active brittle structures, at temperatures ranging from c. 350 down to below 100°C. The occurrence of pyrite and hematite and the lack of pyrrhotite and magnetite points to an oxidizing ore-forming environment with relatively high sulphur activity.    Finally, in order to assess the possibility of connecting two of the mined vein systems, VLF (Very Low Frequency) electromagnetic measurements were performed across the strike of a possible continuation between the Vegerbol and Karlsbol deposits. The VLF survey showed a significant anomaly where such a continuation was to be expected, thus indicating an overall strike length of at least 1 km for that vein system. / Sammanfattning Polymetalliska (Pb-Zn-Cu-Ag-Au-Sb-As-Bi-Cd-Te-Se-Ge…) kvartsgångar förekom­mer inom ett område från Eidsvoll, Norge i norr, till sydväst om Vänern i Sverige. De tros ha bildats under den svekonorvegiska orogenesens (ca 1 Ga) slutskede. I Värmskogs socken, Värmland, förekommer mineraliserade kvartsgångar av flera olika typer. Bland dessa har tre undersökts med avseende på malmmineralogi. Dessa kallas för Vegerbol, Karlsbol och Södra Gärdsjön, och de har brutits i huvudsak på silver. Trots att brytning och prospekteringsarbeten pågått från 1800-talet fram till i dag har det saknats detaljerade mineralogiska beskrivningar över fyndigheterna. Denna studie har genomförts för att bättre kunna karakterisera och klassificera dessa mineralis­eringar. Huvudmalmmineral vid dessa förekomster är blyglans, zinkblände, koppar­kis, pyrit och för Södra Gärdsjön även tetraedrit. Denna undersökning har påvisat förekomsten av silverförande faser som silverhaltig tetraedrit till freibergit, gediget silver, polybasit, jalpait, aguilarit, cervelleit, hessit och matildit, vilka utgör både huvudsakliga och accessoriska silverbärare i de undersökta förekomsterna. Guld (silverhaltigt) har också hittats, samt ett Ni-Co-förande mineral, siegenit.    Silverinnehållet i tetraedriterna varierar inom en och samma förekomst, några analyser har givit freibergitsammansättningar. En svag positiv korrelation finns mellan silver och järnhalt i tetraedrit. Kadmium förekommer både i tetraedrit och i zinkblände. Många zinkbländen består dock av rent ZnS. Förekomsten av relativt komplexa accessoriska mineral inklusive guld och Se-Te-faser (Vegerbol) visar att dessa gångar är jämförbara med liknande förekomster väster och sydväst om Värmskogs­området.    Genom att sammanföra data från denna undersökning med sådana från tidigare studier gjorda på gångarna kan man anta att de bildats vid vid en förändring av den tektoniska miljön, i upprepat aktiva spröda strukturer och vid temperaturer mellan ungefär 350 till under 100 °C. Förekomsten av pyrit och hematit samt avsaknad av magnetkis och magnetit tyder på att malmbildningen skett under oxiderade förhållan­den och relativt hög svavelaktivitet.      Elektromagnetiska mätningar i VLF-bandet (Very Low Frequency) utfördes tvärs över den förmodade strykningsriktningen för en möjlig fortsättning av gången mellan Karlsbol och Vegerbol. Mätningarna gav en tydlig anomali där en sådan fortsättning kan förväntas vilket skulle kunna betyda att det finns en sammanhängande mineralisering med ca 1 kilometers längd.

Des observations macroscopiques et microscopiques sur les plantes actuelles et fossiles ont été effectuées. Sur les plantes actuelles ont été effectué des observations relativement aux effets des gaz volcaniques sur l’ultrastructure des cuticules de Pinus halepensis et de Erica arborea récoltés dans l’aire volcanique des Campi Flegrei, Italie. Les observations conduites au TEM sur les cuticules de P. halepensis, influencé et non influencé par les gaz volcaniques, ont montré que : 1) l'épaisseur totale de la CM (cuticule) + CW (paroi pectocellulosique) ne subit pas de variations significatives d'épaisseur ; 2) la cuticule des aiguilles influencée par les gaz volcaniques montre une accumulation d’oxalate de calcium ainsi que 3) un réarrangement des fibrilles disposées parallèlement à la surface. Les observations conduites sur E. arborea ont permis de 1) constater que les épaisseurs totales des cuticules, influencées ou non par les gaz, sont significativement différentes ; 2) en présence de gaz volcaniques la couche externe A2 subit un accroissement d’épaisseur significatif. Par rapport aux macro-restes végétaux fossiles, les localités du Crétacé de Cusano Mutri et Pietraroja ont été étudiées. Le première site fossilifère a permis 1) d’identifier plusieurs taxa appartenant aux conifères; 2) de décrire une nouvelle espèce de conifère: Frenelopsis cusanensis; 3) de trouver l’angiosperme ancestrale Montsechia vidalii. L’étude taxonomique a permis de décrire des entités typiques de la Province Euro-Sinienne. L’étude sédimentologique et systématique montre un climat plutôt tropical-subtropical, des abondants fusains montrant des incendies naturels. / Macroscopical and microscopical observations on extant and fossil plants have been made. Observations on extant plants led to study the effects of volcanic gases on the cuticle ultrastructure of Pinus halepensis and Erica arborea sampled in the volcanic area of Phlegrean Italy. TEM observations on P. halepensis cuticles fumigated or not by volcanic gases revealed: 1) insignificant thickness variations of the cell wall plus cuticle among current- and first-year-old needles of both fumigated and not fumigated trees; 2) a calcium oxalate accumulation in fumigated leaves; 3) moreover, in respect to the cell surface, fibrils are disposed parallel to the surface of the cuticle. In specimens of E. arborea fumigated or not by volcanic gases, 1) the total thickness of cuticles varies significantly; 2) in plants experiencing chronic fumigation the A2 layer increases its thickness. As for fossil plants, the cuticles of Cretaceous Fossil-Lagertätten of Cusano Mutri and Pietraroja have been studied. In the former: 1) numerous taxa belonging to conifers have been identified; 2) the new species Frenelopsis cusanensis has been described; 3) Montsechia vidalii has been found outside of Spain. Taxonomical studies allowed the description of typical Euro-Sinian fossil plants. Sedimentological and taxonomical studies suggest semi-arid or arid conditions in a subtropical or tropical climate. It is worth noting as for Cusano Mutri locality, evidence of wildfire (fusain) suggests a periodic combination of arid periods, high temperatures and lightning strikes.

Vor dem Hintergrund saisonaler Einflussfaktoren stellen ländlich strukturierte Gebiete besondere Anforderungen an Bemessung und Betrieb von Kläranlagen. Tourismus bildet neben landwirtschaftlich bedingten Ernte- und Verarbeitungskampagnen den bedeutendsten Faktor für saisonale Belastungsschwankungen. Da der größte Teil der Fremdenverkehrseinrichtungen über weniger als 100 Übernachtungsplätze verfügt, besteht bei fehlendem Kanalanschluss ein entsprechender Bedarf an Klein- und Kleinen Kläranlagen zur Behandlung der anfallenden Abwässer. Die Bemessung von Kläranlagen der Größenklasse 1 wird bei fehlenden Messwerten auf Grundlage der im ATV-DVWK-A 198 (2003) als 85-%-Perzentil angegebenen einwohnerspezifischen Frachten durchgeführt. Abwasser aus einfachen Fremdenverkehrseinrichtungen wie Campingplätzen und Hütten weist im Vergleich zur üblichen kommunalen Abwasserzusammensetzung bezogen auf CSB und BSB5 höhere Anteile an Stickstoff- und Phosphorverbindungen auf. Die spezifischen Stickstofffrachten liegen i. M. bei 10 – 11 g/P/d, die spezifischen CSB-Frachten bei i. M. 52 – 68 g/P/d. Die tatsächlichen Frachten werden von der Ausstattung (Restaurant, Wäscherei, etc.) der jeweiligen Unterkunft beeinflusst und sind in der Bemessung gesondert zu berücksichtigen. Für die Behandlung saisonal anfallender Abwässer eignen sich Verfahren mit großem vorgeschaltetem Puffervolumen oder Anlagen mit großem internem Puffer, wie z. B. Bodenfilteranlagen. Anaerobe Vorbehandlungsanlagen wie Anaerobic Baffled Reactors (ABR) können bei entsprechenden Temperaturen zur Frachtentlastung nachgeschalteter aerober Stufen beitragen. Unter gemäßigten Klimabedingungen werden inklusive Sedimentationsprozessen in Vorklärbecken i. M. 50 % des zugeführten CSB eliminiert. Aufgrund der starken Temperaturabhängigkeit des CSB-Abbaus, der Dauer des Einfahrbetriebs, der Empfindlichkeit gegenüber zu hohem Schlammabzug und des nicht berechenbaren Feststoffabtriebs ist unter gemäßigten Klimabedingungen und ohne technische Weiterentwicklung des Verfahrens keine über den Wirkungsgrad von Absetzanlagen hinausgehende Eliminationsleistung bei der Bemessung kalkulierbar. Für saisonal belastete Bodenfilter stellt die Abminderung des Flächenbedarfs bzw. die Steigerung der CSB-Flächenbelastung analog zum nicht belasteten Zeitraum eine betriebssichere und wirtschaftliche Lösung dar, bei der die Einhaltung der Mindestanforderungen gewährleistet ist. Bei geforderter Nitrifikation ist aufgrund des hohen TKN-Konzentrationsniveaus im Abwasser aus Fremdenverkehrseinrichtungen ein Wirkungsgrad von > 95 % für die TKN-Elimination erforderlich. Im Abwasser enthaltene Hemmstoffe, insbesondere in Vorkläranlagen gebildetes Sulfid, können die Nitrifikation beeinträchtigen. Dabei werden Ammoniumoxidation und Nitritoxidation gehemmt. Charakteristisch sind hohe NH4-N- und NO2-N-Konzentrationen im Ablauf (Extremwerte bis zu 55 mg NO2-N/l). Während sich Nitritoxidierer über mehrere Jahre an dauerhaft hohe Sulfidkonzentrationen adaptieren können, wird die Ammoniumoxidation direkt über die Sulfidkonzentration beeinflusst. / In rural communities seasonal factors complicate design and operation of wastewater treatment plants. Tourism as well as agricultural harvesting and processing campaigns are the major causes for seasonal load variations. Due to the fact that accommodation capacities in rural tourism industry rarely exceed 100 beds small sewage treatment plants are acquired if a connection to a sewer system is not feasible. Small wastewater treatment plants can be designed using the population equivalents (PE). According to the German Water Association spreadsheet ATV-DVWK-A 198, PEs are defined as the 85-%-percentile input load. Wastewater of basic accommodations like camping sites and lodges contains higher levels of nitrogen and phosphorous compounds than 'standard' domestic wastewater. The mean specific nitrogen loads reach 10 – 11 g/guest/d, the mean specific COD-load 52 – 68 g/guest/d. The special amenities of vacation homes (restaurant, laundry) affect the real loads and have to be considered in dimensioning. Regarding the treatment of seasonal wastewater, processes with large upstream buffer or large internal buffer, such as constructed wetlands, are suitable. Furthermore, at moderate temperatures anaerobic pretreatment devices, like anaerobic baffled reactors (ABR), can reduce the input load to aerobic post treatment stages. An approximate COD elimination of 50 % can be expected by anaerobic degradation and sedimentation in the ABR in combination with upstream primary clarifiers at around 20 °C. Due to the strong temperature dependence, the long start-up-period, the sensitivity towards fail-desludging, the generation of immediate oxygen demand at low temperatures as well as unpredictable sludge overflow events, it does not seem justified to calculate higher design elimination efficiencies for ABRs than for sedimentation tanks. The design of subsurface vertical flow constructed wetlands with seasonally induced high loading periods are approved for the elimination of organic substances. This accepted assumption was confirmed for the plant under investigation operated at a mean COD-load of 20 g/m²/d, not exceeding the effluent control values for COD in six years. In contrast, oxidation of ammonia and nitrite were inhibited by high sulfide levels (mean sulfide concentration: 48 ± 26 mg/L). Nitrite accumulation reached its peak value at 55 mg NO2-N/L and decreased within 4 years below 1 mg/L due to the adaption of nitrite-oxidizing microorganisms.

Kansanshi mine sulphide ore circuit did not achieve target flotation recovery in 2016, hence it was deemed necessary to carry out a research aimed at optimizing this circuit. The objective of the research was to optimise the Kansanshi milling and flotation circuit processing a copper sulphide ore. In line with this, samples were obtained around the circuit and processed in the laboratory for moisture content, slurry concentration, particle size distribution, and flotation response. This information was then used to build a computer-based model of the Kansanshi milling and flotation circuit. This was done in MODSIM®, a software package specialising in the design and simulation of mineral processing operations. After careful appraisal, appropriate models were selected for the semi autogenous grinding (SAG) and ball mills, SAG mill discharge screen, hydrocyclones, pebble crusher, and the flotation cells. The calibrated model was then used to simulate the effects of key operating parameters on flotation recovery. Analysis using the attainable region technique revealed that the SAG mill feed-rate should be adjusted from 1719 tph to 2090 tph. This would lead to a better utilisation of the pebble crusher that can process 358 tph of pebbles from the current 198 tph. From the simulation work, it was established that rougher flotation recovery can be improved from the current 80.0 % to 82.3 %. The technoeconomic benefits of the proposition are yet to be investigated. Findings from the research concluded that the milling circuit optimum operating parameter; which generated a final product falling predominantly in the range - 150 +38 μm were SAG and ball mills conditions of ball sizes 200 and 40mm respectively, ball mill ball filling 32% and rotational speed between 75 and 80% for both SAG and ball mills. The optimum hydrocyclone feed slurry concentration was found to be 62% solids. Additionally, the SAG mill discharge screen aperture size of 6 mm was the optimum. It must be noted that slurry concentration did not show any impact on both the SAG and ball mills performance. The SAG mill ball filling did not show any significant improvement on performance. / College of Engineering, Science and Technology / M. Tech. (Chemical Engineering)

Vor dem Hintergrund saisonaler Einflussfaktoren stellen ländlich strukturierte Gebiete besondere Anforderungen an Bemessung und Betrieb von Kläranlagen. Tourismus bildet neben landwirtschaftlich bedingten Ernte- und Verarbeitungskampagnen den bedeutendsten Faktor für saisonale Belastungsschwankungen. Da der größte Teil der Fremdenverkehrseinrichtungen über weniger als 100 Übernachtungsplätze verfügt, besteht bei fehlendem Kanalanschluss ein entsprechender Bedarf an Klein- und Kleinen Kläranlagen zur Behandlung der anfallenden Abwässer. Die Bemessung von Kläranlagen der Größenklasse 1 wird bei fehlenden Messwerten auf Grundlage der im ATV-DVWK-A 198 (2003) als 85-%-Perzentil angegebenen einwohnerspezifischen Frachten durchgeführt. Abwasser aus einfachen Fremdenverkehrseinrichtungen wie Campingplätzen und Hütten weist im Vergleich zur üblichen kommunalen Abwasserzusammensetzung bezogen auf CSB und BSB5 höhere Anteile an Stickstoff- und Phosphorverbindungen auf. Die spezifischen Stickstofffrachten liegen i. M. bei 10 – 11 g/P/d, die spezifischen CSB-Frachten bei i. M. 52 – 68 g/P/d. Die tatsächlichen Frachten werden von der Ausstattung (Restaurant, Wäscherei, etc.) der jeweiligen Unterkunft beeinflusst und sind in der Bemessung gesondert zu berücksichtigen. Für die Behandlung saisonal anfallender Abwässer eignen sich Verfahren mit großem vorgeschaltetem Puffervolumen oder Anlagen mit großem internem Puffer, wie z. B. Bodenfilteranlagen. Anaerobe Vorbehandlungsanlagen wie Anaerobic Baffled Reactors (ABR) können bei entsprechenden Temperaturen zur Frachtentlastung nachgeschalteter aerober Stufen beitragen. Unter gemäßigten Klimabedingungen werden inklusive Sedimentationsprozessen in Vorklärbecken i. M. 50 % des zugeführten CSB eliminiert. Aufgrund der starken Temperaturabhängigkeit des CSB-Abbaus, der Dauer des Einfahrbetriebs, der Empfindlichkeit gegenüber zu hohem Schlammabzug und des nicht berechenbaren Feststoffabtriebs ist unter gemäßigten Klimabedingungen und ohne technische Weiterentwicklung des Verfahrens keine über den Wirkungsgrad von Absetzanlagen hinausgehende Eliminationsleistung bei der Bemessung kalkulierbar. Für saisonal belastete Bodenfilter stellt die Abminderung des Flächenbedarfs bzw. die Steigerung der CSB-Flächenbelastung analog zum nicht belasteten Zeitraum eine betriebssichere und wirtschaftliche Lösung dar, bei der die Einhaltung der Mindestanforderungen gewährleistet ist. Bei geforderter Nitrifikation ist aufgrund des hohen TKN-Konzentrationsniveaus im Abwasser aus Fremdenverkehrseinrichtungen ein Wirkungsgrad von > 95 % für die TKN-Elimination erforderlich. Im Abwasser enthaltene Hemmstoffe, insbesondere in Vorkläranlagen gebildetes Sulfid, können die Nitrifikation beeinträchtigen. Dabei werden Ammoniumoxidation und Nitritoxidation gehemmt. Charakteristisch sind hohe NH4-N- und NO2-N-Konzentrationen im Ablauf (Extremwerte bis zu 55 mg NO2-N/l). Während sich Nitritoxidierer über mehrere Jahre an dauerhaft hohe Sulfidkonzentrationen adaptieren können, wird die Ammoniumoxidation direkt über die Sulfidkonzentration beeinflusst. / In rural communities seasonal factors complicate design and operation of wastewater treatment plants. Tourism as well as agricultural harvesting and processing campaigns are the major causes for seasonal load variations. Due to the fact that accommodation capacities in rural tourism industry rarely exceed 100 beds small sewage treatment plants are acquired if a connection to a sewer system is not feasible. Small wastewater treatment plants can be designed using the population equivalents (PE). According to the German Water Association spreadsheet ATV-DVWK-A 198, PEs are defined as the 85-%-percentile input load. Wastewater of basic accommodations like camping sites and lodges contains higher levels of nitrogen and phosphorous compounds than 'standard' domestic wastewater. The mean specific nitrogen loads reach 10 – 11 g/guest/d, the mean specific COD-load 52 – 68 g/guest/d. The special amenities of vacation homes (restaurant, laundry) affect the real loads and have to be considered in dimensioning. Regarding the treatment of seasonal wastewater, processes with large upstream buffer or large internal buffer, such as constructed wetlands, are suitable. Furthermore, at moderate temperatures anaerobic pretreatment devices, like anaerobic baffled reactors (ABR), can reduce the input load to aerobic post treatment stages. An approximate COD elimination of 50 % can be expected by anaerobic degradation and sedimentation in the ABR in combination with upstream primary clarifiers at around 20 °C. Due to the strong temperature dependence, the long start-up-period, the sensitivity towards fail-desludging, the generation of immediate oxygen demand at low temperatures as well as unpredictable sludge overflow events, it does not seem justified to calculate higher design elimination efficiencies for ABRs than for sedimentation tanks. The design of subsurface vertical flow constructed wetlands with seasonally induced high loading periods are approved for the elimination of organic substances. This accepted assumption was confirmed for the plant under investigation operated at a mean COD-load of 20 g/m²/d, not exceeding the effluent control values for COD in six years. In contrast, oxidation of ammonia and nitrite were inhibited by high sulfide levels (mean sulfide concentration: 48 ± 26 mg/L). Nitrite accumulation reached its peak value at 55 mg NO2-N/L and decreased within 4 years below 1 mg/L due to the adaption of nitrite-oxidizing microorganisms.