Academic dissertation--Doctoral examination--Umeå, 1992.

O amadurecimento é um processo complexo formado por alterações metabólicas, que ocorrem após o fruto atingir a sua maturidade fisiológica. O tomate é um fruto climatérico, usado como modelo para estudo do papel do etileno durante o amadurecimento. A pimenta é um fruto não-climatérico, pertencente à mesma família que o tomate, e por conta disso, pode apresentar similaridades no desenvolvimento de diversos atributos de qualidade durante o amadurecimento, como o aroma. A maioria dos compostos voláteis em frutos deriva dos carboidratos, lipídeos e aminoácidos, sendo a via das lipoxigenases a responsável pela formação de voláteis C6. Devido a sua importância no processo de regulação do amadurecimento em frutos, o etileno possui um papel fundamental para a formação do aroma, no entanto, outros hormônios como o metil jasmonato (MeJA), também possuem um papel importante nesse processo. O presente trabalho visa avaliar os papéis dos hormônios etileno e MeJA na formação dos compostos voláteis do aroma em tomate Grape (Solanum lycopersicum) e pimenta malagueta (Capsicum frutescens) durante o amadurecimento. Os frutos foram tratados com MeJA, Etileno, 1MCP e MeJA+1MCP, com posteriores análises de voláteis e níveis dos transcritos de genes para as enzimas lipoxigenase (LOX), álcool desidrogenase (ADH) e hidroperóxido liase (HPL), que participam da formação dos voláteis derivados da via dos ácidos graxos. Os resultados mostraram que os tratamentos hormonais causaram mudanças claras na composição do aroma de pimenta e tomate, mas muitos desses resultados deixaram evidente a natureza climatérica e não-climatérica desses frutos. Diferentemente do que aconteceu em pimenta, foi possível visualizar uma íntima relação entre MeJA e etileno na formação do aroma em tomate, principalmente nos voláteis derivados da via dos carotenoides. Em tomate, foi possível observar que a expressão dos transcritos dos genes da via dos ácidos graxos, LOX, ADH e HPL, e da via dos carotenoides, CCD1A e CCD1B, foi diminuída pela ação de 1MCP, mesmo quando esteve associado à MeJA. O tratamento com MeJA aumentou voláteis C6 em pimenta e tomate. Particularmente em tomate, essa elevação foi associada ao aumento na expressão de LOXC e HPL, um dia após a aplicação do hormônio. Quando o tomate se tornou completamente maduro, não foram constatadas tantas diferenças em relação aos outros tratamentos, exceto pelo aumento evidente dos compostos derivados da via dos carotenoides, beta-ionona e 6-metil-5-hepten-2-ol. No primeiro dia de tratamento com MeJA em pimenta, verificou-se um aumento evidente nos níveis da maioria dos ésteres, inclusive os hexílicos de cadeia alifática, que são derivados dos voláteis C6 da via dos ácidos graxos. Além disso, também apresentaram aumento evidente, logo no primeiro dia após o tratamento com MeJA, os compostos 2-isobutil-3-metoxipirazina e 3-careno, sendo esses dois últimos os compostos que fornecem a nota aromática mais característica de pimenta. Quando as pimentas amadureceram completamente, constatou-se um aumento estatisticamente significativo, proporcionado por MeJA, nos voláteis C6 (E)-2-hexen-1-ol, 3-hexen-1-ol e hexanal, sendo esse último um dos grandes contribuidores para o aroma desse fruto. / Ripening is a complex process formed by metabolic changes that occur after fruit physiological maturity. Tomato is a climacteric fruit, used as a model to study the role of ethylene during ripening. Pepper is a non-climacteric fruit, belonging to the same family as the tomato, and because of this, may present similarities in the development of several attributes of quality during maturation, such as aroma. Most of volatile compounds in fruits derives from carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids, and lipoxygenases pathway is responsible for C6 volatiles production. Due to its importance in the fruit ripening regulation process, ethylene plays an important role in aroma production; however, other hormones, such as methyl jasmonate (MeJA), also play a significant role during fruit ripening. The present work aims to evaluate the roles of ethylene and MeJA hormones in the formation of aroma compounds in tomato Grape (Solanum lycopersicum) and chili pepper (Capsicum frutescens) during ripening. Fruits were treated with MeJA, Ethylene, 1MCP in MeJA+1MCP, followed by analysis of volatile compounds and levels of gene transcripts for the enzymes lipoxygenase (LOX), alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) and hydroperoxide lyase (HPL), which participate of production of volatile compounds derived from the fatty acid pathway. The results showed that hormonal treatments caused changes in pepper and tomato aroma composition, but many of these results made evident the climacteric and non-climacteric nature of these fruits. Unlike what happened in pepper, it was possible to visualize an intimate relationship between MeJA and ethylene under the tomato aroma compounds, mainly in the formation of carotenoid-derived volatiles. In tomato, it was possible to observe that the expression of the fatty acid pathway gene transcripts, LOX, ADH and HPL, and carotenoid pathway, CCD1A and CCD1B, were reduced by 1MCP action, even when it was associated with MeJA. MeJA treatment increased C6 volatiles in pepper and tomato. Particularly in tomato, this elevation was associated with an increase in the LOXC and HPL expression, one day after the hormone treatment. When tomato became fully mature, there were not so many differences compared to the other treatments, except for the evident increase of the carotenoid-derived volatile compounds, beta-ionone and 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-ol. On the first day of treatment with MeJA in pepper, there was a clear increase in the levels of most esters, including the aliphatic chain hexils, which are derived from the C6 volatiles of the fatty acid pathway. In addition, 2-isobutyl-3-methoxypyrazine and 3-carene compounds also showed evident increase, the first two days after treatment with MeJA, the latter two being the compounds that provide the most characteristic aromatic note of pepper. When the peppers reach their complete maturation, there was an increase, under MeJA treatment, in the C6 volatiles (E)-2-hexen-1-ol, 3-hexen-1-ol and hexanal, which is one of the most important aroma compounds in peppers.

O amadurecimento é um processo complexo formado por alterações metabólicas, que ocorrem após o fruto atingir a sua maturidade fisiológica. O tomate é um fruto climatérico, usado como modelo para estudo do papel do etileno durante o amadurecimento. A pimenta é um fruto não-climatérico, pertencente à mesma família que o tomate, e por conta disso, pode apresentar similaridades no desenvolvimento de diversos atributos de qualidade durante o amadurecimento, como o aroma. A maioria dos compostos voláteis em frutos deriva dos carboidratos, lipídeos e aminoácidos, sendo a via das lipoxigenases a responsável pela formação de voláteis C6. Devido a sua importância no processo de regulação do amadurecimento em frutos, o etileno possui um papel fundamental para a formação do aroma, no entanto, outros hormônios como o metil jasmonato (MeJA), também possuem um papel importante nesse processo. O presente trabalho visa avaliar os papéis dos hormônios etileno e MeJA na formação dos compostos voláteis do aroma em tomate Grape (Solanum lycopersicum) e pimenta malagueta (Capsicum frutescens) durante o amadurecimento. Os frutos foram tratados com MeJA, Etileno, 1MCP e MeJA+1MCP, com posteriores análises de voláteis e níveis dos transcritos de genes para as enzimas lipoxigenase (LOX), álcool desidrogenase (ADH) e hidroperóxido liase (HPL), que participam da formação dos voláteis derivados da via dos ácidos graxos. Os resultados mostraram que os tratamentos hormonais causaram mudanças claras na composição do aroma de pimenta e tomate, mas muitos desses resultados deixaram evidente a natureza climatérica e não-climatérica desses frutos. Diferentemente do que aconteceu em pimenta, foi possível visualizar uma íntima relação entre MeJA e etileno na formação do aroma em tomate, principalmente nos voláteis derivados da via dos carotenoides. Em tomate, foi possível observar que a expressão dos transcritos dos genes da via dos ácidos graxos, LOX, ADH e HPL, e da via dos carotenoides, CCD1A e CCD1B, foi diminuída pela ação de 1MCP, mesmo quando esteve associado à MeJA. O tratamento com MeJA aumentou voláteis C6 em pimenta e tomate. Particularmente em tomate, essa elevação foi associada ao aumento na expressão de LOXC e HPL, um dia após a aplicação do hormônio. Quando o tomate se tornou completamente maduro, não foram constatadas tantas diferenças em relação aos outros tratamentos, exceto pelo aumento evidente dos compostos derivados da via dos carotenoides, beta-ionona e 6-metil-5-hepten-2-ol. No primeiro dia de tratamento com MeJA em pimenta, verificou-se um aumento evidente nos níveis da maioria dos ésteres, inclusive os hexílicos de cadeia alifática, que são derivados dos voláteis C6 da via dos ácidos graxos. Além disso, também apresentaram aumento evidente, logo no primeiro dia após o tratamento com MeJA, os compostos 2-isobutil-3-metoxipirazina e 3-careno, sendo esses dois últimos os compostos que fornecem a nota aromática mais característica de pimenta. Quando as pimentas amadureceram completamente, constatou-se um aumento estatisticamente significativo, proporcionado por MeJA, nos voláteis C6 (E)-2-hexen-1-ol, 3-hexen-1-ol e hexanal, sendo esse último um dos grandes contribuidores para o aroma desse fruto. / Ripening is a complex process formed by metabolic changes that occur after fruit physiological maturity. Tomato is a climacteric fruit, used as a model to study the role of ethylene during ripening. Pepper is a non-climacteric fruit, belonging to the same family as the tomato, and because of this, may present similarities in the development of several attributes of quality during maturation, such as aroma. Most of volatile compounds in fruits derives from carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids, and lipoxygenases pathway is responsible for C6 volatiles production. Due to its importance in the fruit ripening regulation process, ethylene plays an important role in aroma production; however, other hormones, such as methyl jasmonate (MeJA), also play a significant role during fruit ripening. The present work aims to evaluate the roles of ethylene and MeJA hormones in the formation of aroma compounds in tomato Grape (Solanum lycopersicum) and chili pepper (Capsicum frutescens) during ripening. Fruits were treated with MeJA, Ethylene, 1MCP in MeJA+1MCP, followed by analysis of volatile compounds and levels of gene transcripts for the enzymes lipoxygenase (LOX), alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) and hydroperoxide lyase (HPL), which participate of production of volatile compounds derived from the fatty acid pathway. The results showed that hormonal treatments caused changes in pepper and tomato aroma composition, but many of these results made evident the climacteric and non-climacteric nature of these fruits. Unlike what happened in pepper, it was possible to visualize an intimate relationship between MeJA and ethylene under the tomato aroma compounds, mainly in the formation of carotenoid-derived volatiles. In tomato, it was possible to observe that the expression of the fatty acid pathway gene transcripts, LOX, ADH and HPL, and carotenoid pathway, CCD1A and CCD1B, were reduced by 1MCP action, even when it was associated with MeJA. MeJA treatment increased C6 volatiles in pepper and tomato. Particularly in tomato, this elevation was associated with an increase in the LOXC and HPL expression, one day after the hormone treatment. When tomato became fully mature, there were not so many differences compared to the other treatments, except for the evident increase of the carotenoid-derived volatile compounds, beta-ionone and 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-ol. On the first day of treatment with MeJA in pepper, there was a clear increase in the levels of most esters, including the aliphatic chain hexils, which are derived from the C6 volatiles of the fatty acid pathway. In addition, 2-isobutyl-3-methoxypyrazine and 3-carene compounds also showed evident increase, the first two days after treatment with MeJA, the latter two being the compounds that provide the most characteristic aromatic note of pepper. When the peppers reach their complete maturation, there was an increase, under MeJA treatment, in the C6 volatiles (E)-2-hexen-1-ol, 3-hexen-1-ol and hexanal, which is one of the most important aroma compounds in peppers.

Les phytoplasmes sont des bactéries phytopathogènes, sans paroi, qui appartenant à la classe des Mollicutes. Ils ne peuvent pas etre cultivés in vitro et sont limités à des tubes du phloème. Ils provoquent des centaines de maladies chez de nombreuses espèces végétales dans le monde entier, ce qui conduit à des pertes de récolte importantes. Les phytoplasmes sont transmis naturellement par des insectes suceurs de sève dans laquelle ils se multiplient. Ils induisent des symptômes graves, notamment le jaunissement, la croissance limitée, déclin, ainsi que des anomalies des fleurs et des fruits. L'infection par le phytoplasme du stolbur, en particulier, affect fortement la morphologie florale. Dans la tomate, deux isolats différents du phytoplasme du stolbur, nommé C et PO, induisent des symptômes différents. La tomate infectée par le phytoplasme du stolbur PO montrent des malformations florale telles que les sépales hypertrophiés, les pétales et les étamines avortées ce qui conduit à la stérilité. En revanche, la tomate infecté par le phytoplasme du stolbur C ont de petites feuilles de tomate en retrait, mais les fleurs presque normale, et produisent des fruits. Nous avons précédemment montré que SlDEF, un gène impliqué dans la formation des pétales est réprimé dans des plantes de tomate infectée par le stolbur phytoplasme PO. Toutefois, l'expression de son facteur de transcription, codée par le gène FA, est resté stable ou voir légèrement augmentée. Nous avons donc émis l'hypothèse que la répression de SlDEF pourrait être dû à une méthylation de l'ADN. Pour tester cette hypothèse, nous avons étudié l'expression des gènes de méthylases et de déméthylases. Ils étaient en général réprimés dans les tomates infectées par le phytoplasme du stolbur PO, ce qui était en accord avec l'hypothèse De plus, nous avons étudié les voies de défense activée chez les tomates infectées par le phytoplasme du stolbur. Pour se défendre, les plantes utilisées des molécules de signalisation comme l'acide salicylique (SA), l'acide jasmonique (JA) et d'éthylène (ET). Nous avons étudié l'expression de 21 gènes de défense dépendants SA / JA / ET, des gènes de biosynthèse et les facteurs de transcription chez les tomates infectées par les phytoplasmes du stolbur C et PO. Nous avons également étudié l'effet de la pré-activation des voies de SA et JA sur la production des symptômes. Nos résultats montrent clairement que les voies de défense ont été activées différemment dans les tomates infectés par le phytoplasme du stolbur C et PO. En effet, les voies de défense dépendantes de SA, ET et JA ont été activées chez les tomates infectées par le phytoplasme du stolbur C alors que seulement les voies dépendantes SA et ET ont été activés dans les tomates infectées par stolbur PO . En outre, la pré-activation de la voie de défense dépendante SA par l'application de BTH modifie légèrement l'évolution des symptômes de maladies causées par le phytoplasme du stolbur PO / Phytoplasma are cell wall-less, phytopathogenic bacteria belonging to the class Mollicutes. They have not been cultured in vitro and are restricted to the phloem sieve tubes. They cause hundreds of diseases in many plant species worldwide, resulting in important crop losses. Phytoplasmas are naturally transmitted by sap-sucking insects in which they multiply. They induce severe symptoms including yellowing, restricted growth, decline, as well as major flowers and fruits abnormalities.The stolbur phytoplasma infection, in particular, has been reported to strongly affect floral morphology. In tomato, two different isolates of stolbur phytoplasma, named C and PO, induce different symptoms. The stolbur PO phytoplasma-infected plants show abnormal flower development such as hypertrophied sepals, and aborted petals and stamens leading to sterility. In contrast, stolbur C phytoplasma-infected tomato have small indented leaves but nearly normal flowers, and produce fruits. We have previously shown that SlDEF, one gene involved in petal formation, was repressed in stolbur PO phytoplasma-infected tomato. However, the expression of its transcription factor, encoded by the gene FA, was unchanged or slightly up-regulated. So we hypothesized that SlDEF repression could be due to DNA methylation. To test this hypothesis, we studied the expression of DNA methylases and demethylases genes. They were in general down-regulated in stolbur PO infected tomato, which was in agreement with the hypothesis. However, the regulation of SlDEF expression could not be firmly correlated to the DNA methylation status of its promoter region. In addition, we studied the plant defense pathways activated in stolbur phytoplasma-infected tomato. To defend themselves, plants used signalling molecules like Salicylic acid (SA), Jasmonic acid (JA) and Ethylene (ET). We studied the expression of 21 SA/JA/ET regulated defense and biosynthesis genes including transcription factors in stolbur C and PO phytoplasma-infected tomato as compared to healthy ones. We also studied the effect of pre-activation of SA and JA mediated defense pathways on symptom production. Our results clearly showed that defense pathways were activated differently in stolbur C and PO phytoplasma-infected tomato. Indeed, SA ET and JA dependant pathways were activated in stolbur C-infected tomato while only SA and ET dependant pathways were activated in stolbur PO-infected plants. In addition, pre-activation of SA-dependent defense pathway by application of BTH slightly modify the evolution of disease symptoms caused by stolbur PO phytoplasma whereas no effect was observed after treatment with an analogue of JA.

Thesis (PhD)-- Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The study explores fictional representations of poverty in selected novels of Meja Mwangi and Roddy Doyle, respectively Kenyan and Irish – examining techniques of literary representation and how the two authors make imaginative use of various stylistic techniques and verbal skills in a selection of their texts to achieve compelling representations of poverty. The study recognizes that poverty is one of the most recurrent subjects of discussion in the world, that it is a complex and multifaceted concept and condition and that it affects societal, political and economic dimensions of life. The study considers the (broad) United Nations definition of poverty as: “… a human condition characterised by the sustained or chronic deprivation of the resources, capabilities, choices, security and power necessary for the enjoyment of an adequate standard of living and other civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights” (United Nations High Commission for Human Rights, 2002). Rather than suggest that fiction replaces other approaches in the study of poverty, the study calls for a complementary “conversation” between fiction and the social sciences in depictions of the condition of poverty. However, the study notes the advantage that fiction has in its nuanced exploration of the subject of poverty. In fact, fiction reflects social reality in interestingly subversive but also empowering ways – showing a unique way of dealing with difficult situations. Fiction is equipped with the subtle instruments and complex power of literary devices to articulate multiple layers of possible meanings and human experiences and conditions vividly and movingly – in ways that are accessible to a variety of readers. While giving a voice to the voiceless – the poor – narrative fiction opens inner feelings and thoughts of the depicted poor and enables the reader to probe deeply into the inner feelings of characters depicted; allowing the reader to develop a deeper understanding of the condition of poverty, but also allowing the reader to bring his or her interpretation to bear on what is represented. The five main chapters of the thesis are thematically arranged, but the analysis draws on a variety of theoretical paradigms including but not limited to those of Maria Pia Lara and Mikhail Bakhtin. Significant to the study is Maria Pia Lara’s ideas of literature as a “frame for struggles of recognition and transformation” (Lara, 1998: 7) and of the “illocutionary force” (1998: 5) of literature – its ability to articulate aspects of a human condition (such as poverty) vividly and compellingly. Bakhtin’s suggestion that “language is not self-evident and not in itself incontestable” (Bakhtin, 2004: 332) is important – capturing the idea of a distinctive flexibility of discourse in the novel and rejecting simplistic ideas that there is a single truth concerning a particular situation such as poverty. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie tesis onderneem ‘n studie van literêre voorstellings van armoede in geselekteerde romans van Meja Mwangi en Roddy Doyle, respektiewelik ‘n Keniaanse en ‘n Ierse outeur. Die analise sentreer rondom die literêre tegnieke waarvan die skrywers gebruik maak en ondersoek hul verbeeldingryke gebruik van verskillende stilistiese tegnieke en verbale kunste in ‘n seleksie van hul tekste om sodoende indrukwekkende voorstellings van armoede te boekstaaf. Die studie erken dat armoede een van die mees bespreekte onderwerpe in die wêreld is, dat dit ‘n komplekse en veelkantige konsep en tipe lewenservaring is en dat dit by sosiale, politiese en ekonomiese lewensdimensies aansny. Die studie maak gebruik van die breë definisie van armoede soos verskaf deur die Verenigde Volke: “… ‘n menslike kondisie wat gekenmerk word deur die langdurige of kroniese ontneming van die bronne, kapasiteite, keuses, sekuriteit en mag wat nodig is ten einde ‘n adekwate lewensstandaard en ander siviele, kulturele, ekonomiese, politiese en sosiale regte te kan geniet” (Verenigde Volke Kommissie van Menseregte, 2002). Instede daarvan om te suggereer dat fiksie ander maniere om oor armoede te bestudeer, behoort te vervang, stel hierdie studie voor dat ‘n komplementerende “gesprek” tussen fiksie en die sosiale wetenskappe behoort plaas te vind aangaande die toestand van armoede. Nogtans meld hierdie studie die voordeel aan waaroor fiksie beskik in die genuanseerde ondersoek aangaande die onderwerp van armoede. Fiksie reflekteer sosiale werklikhede op interessante, selfs subversiewe maar ook bemagtigende maniere – sodoende manifesteer dit ‘n unieke metode van omgaan met moeilike situasies. Fiksie beskik oor subtiele instrumente en die komplekse krag van literêre metodes om die veellagige moontlike betekenisse en toestande waardeur armoede gekenmerk word, te artikuleer – op heldere asook aandoenlike maniere wat terselfdertyd weerklank kan vind by ‘n verskeidenheid van lesers. Terwyl dit ‘n stem verskaf aan die stemloses – die armes – open narratiewe fiksie die dieper gevoelens en gedagtes van die armes en maak sulke werke dit vir die leser moontlik om deur te dring tot die binneste gevoelslewe van die karakters. Op hierdie manier maak fiksie dit vir die leser moontlik om ‘n beter begrip van die ervaringswêreld van armoedige mense te bekom, maar word dit ook vir die leser moontlik om sy of haar eie interpretasie te maak van die voorgestelde toestand van armoede. Die vyf hoofstukke van die tesis is tematies gestruktureer, maar die analise maak gebruik van ‘n paar teoretiese perspektiewe wat díe van Maria Pia Lara en Mikhail Bakhtin insluit. Lara se idees aangaande letterkunde as “[a] frame for struggles of recognition and transformation” en oor die “illocutionary force” (Lara, 1998: 7, 5) van letterkunde – m.a.w. die mag van literêre voorstellings om aspekte van menslike ervaring (bv. armoede) op duidelike en kragtige maniere uit te beeld – en Bakhtin se suggestie: “language is not self-evident and not in itself contestable” (Bakhtin, 2004: 332) is belangrik omdat dit die kenmerkende buigsaamheid van diskoers in die roman saamvat en simplistiese idees dat daar ‘n enkelmatige waarheid i.v.m. ‘n komplekse toestand soos armoede kan wees, verwerp.

El gen OCP3 codifica un factor de transcripción de la familia Homeobox. En trabajos anteriores se ha demostrado que la pérdida de función de este gen en Arabidopsis thaliana causa un notable incremento de la resistencia a infecciones por hongos necrotrofos como Botrytis cinerea o Plectosphaerella cucumerina. Además esa resistencia es dependiente de la correcta señalización mediada por ácido jasmónico (JA), una de las fitohormonas más ampliamente relacionadas con el establecimiento de las respuestas defensivas en plantas junto con el ácido salicílico (SA). A través del balance entre las señalizaciones de estos dos reguladores (JA y SA), la planta es capaz de disparar la respuesta defensiva más apropiada dependiendo del tipo de patógeno que la ataca. Así pues, el estudio de las interrelaciones entre JA y SA y los componentes que transducen las respectivas señales es de gran utilidad para desentramar la compleja red de regulación que compone la respuesta inmune de las plantas. Mediante el estudio de dobles mutantes, se ha demostrado un nuevo papel de OCP3 en la interconexión entre SA y JA en respuesta a Pseudomonas syringae e Hyaloperonospora arabidopsidis, dos patógenos de tipo biotrofo. Además se propone a OCP3 como un nuevo componente de la denominada Resistencia Sistémica Inducida (ISR). Existe cierto grado de solapamiento entre las respuestas de las plantas frente a estreses bióticos y abióticos. La identificación de los componentes comunes a estas dos rutas es de gran valor para conocer cómo las plantas se adaptan ante situaciones de estrés diferentes. Mediante un rastreo por doble híbrido en levadura, se identificaron cuatro proteínas que interaccionan con OCP3. Todas ellas están implicadas en la señalización mediada por ABA, una fitohormona que regula, entre otros procesos, la respuesta frente al estrés hídrico. En el presente trabajo se aportan numerosas evidencias que indican que OCP3 regula el cierre estomático promovido por ABA, y con ello la tolerancia a / Ramirez Garcia, V. (2008). Análisis funcional del gen OCP3 [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/4683 / Palancia