The focus of this thesis has been four-fold. On one hand it has been to decipher, understand and manipulate the role of microtubule-trafficking in the cell. Secondly we have concentrated on the mechanism of action of agents that target the microtubules, and thirdly we have developed a model to explain acquired drug resistance to these microtubule-targeting agents. Lastly, we tested new microtubule-targeting agents that overcome acquired and intrinsic drug resistance to microtubule-targeting agents. Microtubules (microtubules) are major dynamic structural components in cells that are essential for the development and maintenance of cell shape, cell signaling, movement, and division. We sought to understand the role microtubules play within the cellular context. Microtubules act as "active highways" within the cells and are essential for the correct operation of the cell by controlling the delivery, location, and function of a plethora of proteins. We have focused on the p53 and the HIF1-α proteins. Both these proteins are crucial players in tumor progression and angiogenesis. p53 is a tumor suppressor gene commonly referred to as the guardian of the genome and HIF1-α is a transcriptional factor that plays a key role in adaptation to hypoxia. Upon DNA damage or hypoxia, p53 or HIF1-α respectively are induced and quickly localize to the cell nucleus; whereas upon DNA repair or normoxia they must quickly concentrate in the cytoplasm for degradation. Their fast movement rate is not random and is directed by a microtubule-driven motor. Furthermore, we have shown that HIF1-α mRNA also uses the microtubule network to travel from the nucleus to the site of translation.Drugs that bind to either tubulin or microtubules form one of the most effective classes of anticancer agents. The so-called anti-mitotic drugs usually arrest cells in mitosis leading to apoptosis. We analyzed the differential effects of taxol treatment on parental and taxol-resistant cells. Survivin is a protein that senses mitotic arrest and leading to apoptotic cell death. Despite the clinical success of microtubule-targeting agents, the emergence of acquired resistance to the drug is a limiting factor for curing cancer. Acquired drug resistance is the most common reason for the failure of drug treatment in cancer patients with initially sensitive tumors, and as such, is presently responsible for the majority of deaths from cancer. We sought to understand the timeline of events that takes place during the development of drug resistance to microtubule-targeting agents. While it has been widely published that a major mechanism of resistance to anti-mitotic drugs is due to acquired β-tubulin mutations, we have shown loss of heterozygosity of the wild type allele of β-tubulin must occur to confer higher levels of resistance. To overcome drug resistance to microtubule-targeting agents we have focused on alternate drug regimens that are active in anti-mitotic drug-resistant cells. The synergistic interaction of farnesyltransferase inhibitors (FTI) and taxol has recently been introduced in the clinic and surprisingly overcomes taxol resistance. We have shown that FTIs increase the binding of taxol to β-tubulin tubulin, even in taxol-resistant cells. In an effort to dissect the molecular mechanism underlying the synergistic interaction of FTIs with taxanes, we have recently discovered that FTIs affect microtubule acetylation and stability, partly due to inhibition of the tubulin deacetylase HDAC6. The inhibition of HDAC6 by the FTI lonafarnib leads to increased tubulin acetylation and that this is the molecular basis for the synergy of FTIs with Taxol. / La tesis titulada "Anti-microtubule drugs: Mechanisms of Action and Resistance. Agents anti-microtubulars: Mecanismes d'Acció i Resistència" tiene cuatro objetivos principales. El primer objetivo ha sido descifrar, entender y manipular el papel del tráfico microtubular. El segundo objetivo se ha centrado en el mecanismo de acción de los agentes que tienen como diana los microtúbulos. En el tercer objetivo se ha desarrollado un modelo para explicar la quimioresistencia adquirida a estos agentes anti-microtubulares. En el cuarto y ultimo objetivo se han probado nuevos agentes anti-microtubulares que son activos en casos de quimioresistencia adquirida o endógena a agentes anti-microtubulares.Los microtúbulos, componentes dinámicos y estructurales de las células, son esenciales para el desarrollo y mantenimiento de la forma celular, el movimiento y división celulares. Se ha intentado entender el papel que juegan los microtúbulos en el contexto celular. Los microtúbulos actúan como "autopistas activas" dentro de las células y son esenciales para la correcta operación celular ya que controlan la entrega, localización y función de una multitud de proteínas. El primer objetivo de la tesis se ha centrado en las proteínas p53 y HIF1-α. Estas dos proteínas son principales protagonistas en la progresión tumoral y la angiogenesis. La p53 es un gen supresor de tumor comúnmente llamado el guardián del genoma y el HIF1-α es un factor de trascripción que tiene un papel crucial en la adaptación celular a la hipoxia (la baja concentración de oxigeno). En los casos de el daño al ADN o hipoxia, la p53 o el HIF1-α, respectivamente, son inducidos y se translocan rápidamente al núcleo celular, mientras que cuando el ADN ha sido reparado o el regreso al estado de normoxia, las proteínas se deben concentrar en el citoplasma para su degradación por el proteosoma. El rápido movimiento de estas proteínas no es aleatorio y esta dirigido por un motor microtubular. Además, se ha demostrado que el ARN mensajero del HIF1-α también usa la red de microtúbulos para llegar del núcleo al sitio de translación a proteína. Las drogas que se unen a la tubulina forman parte de una de las clases más efectivas de agentes anticáncer. Estas drogas comúnmente referidas como antimitóticas arrestan las células en mitosis conllevando a la apoptosis celular. Se han analizados los diferentes efectos del tratamiento del taxol en líneas celulares sensibles al taxol y en líneas celulares resistentes al taxol derivadas de las líneas sensibles. La survivina es una proteína clave en el pase del arresto mitótico en la célula a la muerte por apoptosis. A pesar del éxito clínico de las drogas antimicrotubulares, un factor que limita su aplicación universal es la apariencia de focos resistentes. La quimioresistencia adquirida es la razón más común del fracaso de la quimioterapia en pacientes con cáncer que inicialmente responden al tratamiento. En el tercer objetivo de la tesis se ha descrito un modelo temporal para explicar el desarrollo de la quimioresistencia en líneas celulares tratadas continuamente con drogas antimicrotubulares. Aunque se ha publicado extensamente que el principal mecanismo de quimioresistencia a los agentes antimicrotubulares es debido a la apariencia de mutaciones en el gen de la beta-tubulina, en este objetivo se ha demostrado que es necesario que también haya perdida de heterocigosidad en el alelo wt para que las células tengan unos altos niveles de resistencia. En el cuarto objetivo se han estudiado nuevos regimenes de quimioterapia que son activos en las células resistentes. La interacción sinergística entre los inhibidores de la farnesiltransferasa (FTI) y los taxanos se introdujo recientemente en la clínica y es muy activa contra la resistencia al taxol. Se ha demostrado que los FTIs intensifican la unión del taxol a la beta-tubulina, incluso en células resistentes al taxol. Los FTIs afectan la acetilación microtubular, a través de la inhibición de la HDAC6, la tubulina deacetilasa. La mayor acetilación de la tubulina, conlleva a una tubulina más estable y más propensa a la unión del taxol.

This thesis project is focused on the study of the signaling module formed by the NIMA-related protein Nek6, Nek7, and Nek9 and their function during early mitosis, with particular interest in centrosome separation and maturation. Nek9/Nercc1 was identified by Dr. Joan Roig. Nek9 is expressed in all cell lines and tissues studied is inactive during interphase while during mitosis is activated through phosphorylation by Plk1 which is in fact able to bind Nek9 and subsequently phosphorylates Nek9 on its activation loop. During mitosis Nek6 and Nek7 bind the C-terminal of Nek9. Once active, Nek9 can phosphorylate Nek6 and Nek7, thus activating them. Active Nek9 localizes at centrosome, suggesting that Nek9/Nek6-7 has important functions in the organization of microtubules during cell division. Confirming this idea, it has been shown that the microinjection of anti-Nek9 module induces arrest in prometaphase with disorganized spindle structures and misaligned chromosomes, or leads to abnormal mitosis resulting in aneuploidy. In the same direction, interference with the function of Nek7 or Nek6 leads to abnormal mitotic progression and spindle formation. We described how the Nek9/Nek6-7 module could provide a link connecting Plk1 and Eg5 in the context of centrosome separation. we analyzed the effects of Plk1, Eg5, Nek9, Nek6 or Nek7 down-regulation by RNAi on the extent of separation of duplicated centrosomes in prophase cells and we observed how this downregulation was affecting centrosome separation. We determine whether the activation of Nek9 or Nek6 could induce centrosome separation trasfecting cells with the active form of these two kinases; a considerable amount of cells that were in interphase shown separate centrosome demonstrating that Nek9/Nek6 are sufficient to induce centrosome separation. To test whether active Nek9 and Nek6 exerted their effect through the regulation of Eg5 we simultaneously transfected the cells with Eg5 siRNAs and we completely lost the centrosome separation described above. We demonstrated by immunofluorescence that the key event during centrosome separation was the recruitment of Eg5 at centrosomes and that the down-regulation of Plk1, Nek6, Nek7 or Nek9 resulted in prophase cells with unseparated centrosomes because Eg5 was not properly recruited. To prove whether the phosphorylation on Ser-1033 controls the accumulation of Eg5 to centrosomes and centrosome separation during early mitosis we transfected cells with wild type Eg5 or Eg5 S1033A; the wild type form of the kinesin was able to localize at centrosome and rescue the normal phenotype while Eg5 S1033A was not able to localize and resulted in cells delayed in mitosis. Plk1, the Nek9 activator, is involved in the regulation of centrosome maturation during early mitosis. Centrosome maturation refers to the process through which centrosomes increase size and microtubule nucleation activity and requires the accumulation of γ-TuRC complexes at centrosome. This recruitment depends on Nedd1 that acts as γ-Tubulin targeting factor. Plk1 depletion prevents accumulation of Nedd1 at centrosome. Our experiments show the importance of Nek9 in the regulation of centrosome maturation downstream of Plk1. Depletion of Nek9 by siRNA determined a decrease of γ-Tubulin and Nedd1 at centrosome. Further we investigated the upstream role of Plk1 depleting Plk1 and trasfecting active Nek9 and it was able to rescue the normal phenotype. Nek9 can interact with Nedd1 during mitosis and phosphorylates it provoking its accumulation at centrosome. The no-phosphorylable form of Nedd1 was not able to accumulate at centrosome and support the accumulation of γ-Tubulin there, determining a delay of the cells in prometaphase. Our results show that Nek9 is the link between Plk1 activity and the recruitment of Nedd1 to the centrosome and that the pathway formed by Plk1/Nek9/Nedd1 can be a key element in the control of mitotic centrosome maturation.

Els factors de transcripció de la família Snail són fonamentals en la "transició epiteli-mesènquima", procés morfogènic essencial en el desenvolupament embrionari i en els fenòmens metastàsics tumorals.En els mamífers l'activitat d'Snail és modulada per dos mecanismes. (i) En el promotor humà es troben regions definides de resposta a factors repressors, predominants en les cèl·lules epitelials, i elements diferenciats de resposta a inductors de la "transició epiteli-mesènquima". (ii) L'activitat d'Snail és condicionada també per la seva localització subcel·lular, modulada per mecanismes no transcripcionals: la fosforilació d'Snail determina si és o no exclós del nucli. Al citosol no pot actuar com a repressor transcripcional però pot interaccionar amb la xarxa microtubular, que estabilitza i en condiciona el dinamisme. Això coincideix amb l'activació de la GTPasa RhoA i la reorientació dels filaments de vimentina, fets associats a l'adquisició de capacitat migratòria. L'efecte com a repressor transcripcional i la modulació del dinamisme microtubular són possiblement esdeveniments coordinats necessaris per al rol biològic d'Snail en mamífers. / Snail family of transcription factors is fundamental to the "epithelial-mesenchymal transition", morphogenic process essential to embryonic development and metastatic phenomena in tumors.Snail's activity is modulated in two ways in mammals. (i) The human promoter harbors definite regions that respond to repressor factors, which prevail in epithelial cells; and differentiated elements that respond to known inducers of the "epithelial-mesenchymal transition". (ii) Snail's activity is also conditioned by its subcellular localization, mechanism not dependent on its transcriptional control: Snail phosphorylation determines whether Snail is excluded or not from the nucleus. When in the cytosol, Snail is unable to act as a transcriptional repressor, but however binds to the microtubular meshwork, which becomes stabilized and whose dynamism is conditioned as a result. This fact coincides with the activation of the RhoA GTPase and reorientation of vimentin filaments, both phenomena being related to the acquisition of cell motility. The transcriptional repressor and the microtubule dynamics effects are probably two coordinated events necessary to Snail's biological role in mammals.