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Air pollution can lead to environmental impacts. Over the past decades there have been some success stories reducing pollutant emission, namely sulphur dioxide (SO2). However, impacts on ecosystems from atmospheric nitrogen (N) pollution are still seen as a major threat for European biodiversity. Across Europe over 70% of Natura 2000 sites are at risk for eutrophication with over 70% of the Natura 2000 area in Europe (EU28( exceeding critical loads for nutrient nitrogen deposition. Agricultural ammonia is a key contributor to the threat to these sites due to the close proximity of agricultural activities and protected sites. Source attribution modelling using an atmospheric transport model showed that agricultural livestock production in the UK is the dominant nitrogen source for N disposition across the UK Natura 2000 network. Nearly 90% of all sites had livestock as their dominant source, contributing 32% of the total nitrogen deposition across the whole network. 76% of all Special Areas of Conservation (SAC) sites exceeded their critical load for nutrient nitrogen, representing 74% of the entire SAC area. The extent of exceedance is also notable with many sites experiencing depositions of >50 kg N/ha/yr over the critical load. the situation for acidity critical load exceedance is less sever, by 51% of sites are still exeeded. Legislation to regulate pollutant emissions to air and protect biodiversity are often not integrated, and there has been no common European approach for determining the impacts of nitrogen deposition on individual Natura sites, or on conservation status. Off-site sources of air pollution present difficulties in assessing and attributing impacts, because deposition can result from local sources (1-2 km), or very far away sources (>1000 kms). Managing nitrogen losses on the farm and improving the efficient use of nitrogen are key components for overall reduction in NH3 emissions. Many nitrogen management options are available to abate ammonia from agricultural activities. On the one hand, technical and management measures include controlling emissions from manure storage and spreading, livestock feeding strategies, and improving housing systems. Trees, on the other hand, are effective scavengers of both gaseous and particulate pollutants from the atmosphere, making tree belts potentially effective landscape features to support ammonia abatement strategies. Using a coupled deposition and turbulence model the recapture efficiency of tree planting around ammonia sources was estimated. Using different canopy structure scenarios, tree depths and differing leaf area density (LAD) and leaf are index (LAI) were adjusted for a main canopy and a backstop canopy. Recapture efficiency for ammonia ranged from 27% (trees planted around housing systems), up to 60% (under-story livestock silvopastoral systems). Practical recapture potential was set at 20% and 40% for housing and silvopastoral systems respectively. Model results from scaling up to national level suggest that tree planting in hot spot areas of ammonia emissions would lead to reduced N deposition on nearby sensitive habitats. Scenarios for on-farm emission control through tree planting showed national reductions in nitrogen deposition to semi-natural areas of 0.14% (0.2 kt N-NHx) to 2.2% (3.15 kt N-NHx). Scenarios mitigating emissions from cattle and pig housing yielded the highest reductions. The afforestation strategy showed national-scale emission reductions of 6% (8.4 kt N-NHx) to 11% (15.7 kt N-NHx) for 25% and 50% afforestation scenarios respectively. Increased capture by the planted trees also generated an added benefit of reducing long-range transport effects, including a decrease in wet deposition of up to 3.7 kt N-NHx (4.6%) and a decrease in export from the UK of up to 8.3 kt N-NHx (6.8%). Agroforestry measures for ammonia abatement were shown to be cost-effective for both planting downwind of housing and in silvopastoral systems, when costs to society were taken into account. Planting trees was also cost-effective from a climate change perspective. Comparing the cost per kg of NH3 abated showed that planting trees is a method of ammonia emission mitigation comparable with other (technical) measures. The costs for planting trees downwind of housing were calculated at €2.6-7.3/kg NH3. Agroforestry for ammonia abatement offers multiple benefits for the farmer and synergistic effects for society as a whole including i) carbon sequestration. ii) visibility screening around housing units, iii) imporved animal welfare for silvopastoral systems, iv) reducing critical load exceedance on protected sites, v) price advantage of 'woodland chick' productions, vi) supporting the Industrial Emission Directive (IED) requirements for emission reduction, vii) supporting national afforestation policies. The results of this work support the notion that in the emerging discussion about the values of ecosystem services and the role of nature-based solution to tackle persistent environmental challenges, tree planting has a large potential in rural and urban environments.

114 Resumé The topic of my diploma thesis is "Legal regulation of Natura 2000 Network". Natura 2000 is a a network that seeks to preserve biodiversity within the territory of the EU. Natura 2000 was imposed by the article 3 of the Habitats Directive, which along with the Bird Directive are the most important legal acts aiming at biodiversity conservation in the European Union. The main purpose of this work is the legal analysis of the legal arangement of the Natura 2000 Network by taking the european context under consideration. First three chapters describes the concept of Natura 2000 Network and its history, including a short description of biodiversity protection within the internatinal law (relevant international agreements). The next chapter is focused on the European Union Law. Firstly, it describes the history of environmental policy within the european law and the institutions and funds connected to Natura 2000 Network. The law base of Nature 2000 network is formed by the European Directive 2009/147/EEC on the conservation of the wild birds (so called "Birds Directive") and the European Directive 92/43/EEC on the conservation of the natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora (so called "Habitats Directive"). These directives enable designation of two types of protected areas - Special Protected...

Les Vallons Obscurs sont des sites Natura 2000 de la région niçoise, ensemble de vallons de rive gauche du Var, proches de la ville et protégés sur les plans régional, national et européen. Au XIXe siècle, le Vallon Obscur était un site niçois célèbre pour ses caractères physiques. La recherche porte d’abord sur la définition de cet objet géographique. Que sont les vallons obscurs, quels critères leur donnent vie et permettent de les localiser ? Cette expression imagée est à la fois toponyme, but de promenades touristiques et site remarquable.La deuxième partie, fondée sur l’exploitation des relevés de terrain et des documents d’archive, aborde l’origine et l’originalité de l’obscurité et compare les géosystèmes et les paysages des vallons obscurs à ceux des vallons qui ne le sont pas. La troisième partie explore l’avenir de ces vallons. La disparition du Vallon Obscur originel pose la question de la sensibilité et de la fragilité de tels sites. Une typologie des vallons étudiés ouvre la réflexion sur les processus à l’origine des mesures de protection et sur leurs conséquences. L’étude du vallon obscur, petit objet géographique qui n’est ni vallon sombre ni ravin obscur, conduit à discuter des politiques de gestion de l’environnement à échelles emboîtées. / The Vallons Obscurs are “Natura 2000” sites in the Nice area. The series of valleys are situated on the left bank of the river Var near the city and are protected on a regional, national and European level. In the 19th century, the Vallon Obscur was a unique valley in the region famous for its physical charecteristics. The research focuses primarily on the definition of the geographical object. Of what do the valleys consist and what criteria bring them to life and allow us to locate them? The Vallons Obscurs indeed a very colourful expression, is simultaneously a habitation name, an area of reputable tourist trails and a truly remarkable site. The second part, based on the exploitation of field surveys and archival documents, examines the origins and originality of the darkness of the vallon obscur and compares their geo-systems and landscapes to those of the valleys not considered obscure.The third part explores the future of these valleys. The disappearance of the original Vallon Obscur raises the question of the sensitivity and fragility of such sites. A typology of the valleys opens reflection allows us to reflect on the procedure behind protection measures and their consequences. The study of the vallon obscur, a small spatial object that is neither a dark valley nor a dark ravine will lead us to consider the politics of environmental management on a more fitting level.

Den nuvarande prövningsordningen för bearbetningskoncession bygger på ett system där Bergsstaten bedömer företrädesrätt till mineral och mark- och vattenområden. Prospektören måste senare ansöka om miljötillstånd enligt miljöbalken. Problem uppstår när de parallella prövningarna kolliderar med EU:s skydd för utpekade arter och livsmiljöer (Natura 2000). Risken med att vid ett tidigt skede i processen ansöka om Natura 2000-tillstånd är att man behöver söka nytt tillstånd senare i processen, detta om gruvverksamhetens omfattning och miljöeffekter inte var fullt klarlagda vid det första ansökningstillfället. Dessa omständigheter har resulterat i en rättsosäkerhet och att färre gruvor etableras. Arbetet har tagit utgångspunkt ifrån analyser av gällande rätt och har genom en rättsdogmatisk metod syftat till att redogöra för förutsättningarna för att erhålla bearbetningskoncession. Vidare har arbetet avsett att undersöka när i prövningsprocessen ett Natura 2000-tillstånd behöver sökas samt vilka kriterier som behöver vara uppfyllda för att erhålla tillståndet. De parallella prövningarna samt nuvarande prövningsordning har blivit ett problem som givit upphov till ett lagförslag som föreslår att ett Natura 2000-tillstånd inte längre ska vara en förutsättning för att erhålla bearbetningskoncession. Natura 2000-tillståndsprövningen ska istället interageras med miljötillståndsprövningen som sker vid ett senare tillfälle. De tilltänkta ändringarna syftar till att effektivisera prövningsprocessen samt bidra till att den ska bli mer förutsägbar och rättssäker, detta i sin tur antas leda till att investeringsviljan ökar. Lagändringen antas inte leda till några negativa effekter på miljön eftersom en koncession inte per automatik innebär tillstånd att starta en gruvverksamhet, den utgör heller ingen garanti för att verksamheten kommer godkännas i slutändan. Kraven på tillstånd enligt miljöbalken kvarstår och lagstiftarens syfte är endast att ändra när i tillståndsprövningen ansökan ska ske.

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Syftet med studien är att undersöka hur kompensationsåtgärder tillämpas vid två olika infrastrukturprojekt i Sverige. Genom en kvalitativ innehållsanalys av material och dokumentation kring fallen Botniabanan och Förbifart Stockholm har frågor om problem/svårigheter som bedöms förekomma i kompensationsprojekten, hur naturen värdesätts och om kompensationsåtgärder legitimerar exploatering besvarats. Resultatet av studien visar att det finns svårigheter i att utvärdera behovet av kompensationsåtgärder på grund av osäkerheter kring projektens miljöeffekter vilket försvårar valet av lämpliga kompensationer. Infrastrukturprojektens komplexitet, med avseende på de olika naturvärden som påverkas under bygg- och driftskedet komplicerar tillämpningen av kompensationsåtgärder. Miljökonsekvensbeskrivningarnas brist på saklighet, tydlighet och konsekvens ger inte en objektiv bild av behovet av kompensation. Det finns en tydlig risk för underskattning av infrastrukturprojektens påverkan på naturvärdena i skyddade naturområden. Det antropocentriska perspektivet är den centrala utgångspunkten för tillämpningen av kompensationsåtgärder. Kompensationsprincipen legitimerar exploatörers möjlighet till att använda sig av skyddad mark i naturreservat och/eller Natura 2000-områden. / The purpose of this study is to examine how compensation measures are applied at two different infrastructure projects in Sweden. Through a qualitative content analysis of materials and documentation surrounding the cases Botniabanan and Förbifart Stockholm questions about the problems/difficulties that are deemed to occur in offset projects, how nature is valued and if compensation measures legitimize exploitation are answered. The result of the study shows that there are difficulties in evaluating the need for compensatory measures due to the uncertainties around environmental effects which complicate the choice of appropriate compensation. Infrastructure projects complexity, with respect to the various natural assets that are affected during the construction and operational phases complicates the application of compensatory measures. The environmental impact assessments lack of objectivity, clarity and consistency does not give an objective picture of the need for compensation. There is a clear risk of underestimation of infrastructure projects' impact on the natural values of protected natural areas. The anthropocentric perspective is the central starting point for the application of compensatory measures. Compensation principle legitimizes exploiters opportunity to make use of protected land in nature reserves and/or Natura 2000 areas.