Representations of the reasons and actions of terrorists have appeared in German literature tracing back to the age of Sturm und Drang of the 18th century, most notably in Heinrich von Kleist's Michael Kohlhaas and Friedrich Schiller's Die Räuber, and more recently since the radical actions of the Red Army Faction during the late 1960s and early 1970s, such as in Uli Edel's film, The Baader Meinhof Complex. By referring to Walter Benjamin's system of natural law and positive law, which provides definitions of differing codes of ethics with relation to state laws and personal ethics, one should be able to understand that Michael Kohlhaas, Karl Moor, and the members of the RAF are indeed represented as terrorists. However, their actions and motives are not without an internal ethics, which conflicts with that of their respective state-sanctioned authorities. This thesis reveals the similarities and differences in motives, methods, and use of violence in Schiller, Kleist, and representations of the RAF and explores how the turn to terrorism can arise from a logical realization that ideologies of state law do not align with the personal sense of justice and law of the individual.

1 Material Tensions between Natural Law and Positive Law and Approaches to its Solution Jakub Kříž Abstract The title of my dissertation - "Material Tensions between Natural Law and Positive Law and Approaches to its Solution" - refers to everlasting contrapositions of two different approaches to law: (i) natural law tradition which is concerned with a necessary continuity between law and the requirements of practical reasonableness and that describes law as "rational standard for conduct"1 and (ii) tradition of legal positivism, which understands law only as a social fact. Actually, in the world of jurisprudence, there is no single natural law theory on one side2 and unique legal positivism on the other side.3 It is 1 MURPHY, Mark C. Natural Law Jurisprudence. Legal Theory. 2003, No. 9, p. 244, MURPHY, Mark C. Natural Law Theory. In: GOLDING , Martin P., EDMUNSON, William A. (eds.). The Blackwell Guide to the Philosophy of Law and Legal Theory. s.l. : Blackwell Publishing, 2006, p. 15. 2 For many of them we can mention classical natural law theory of the thomistic philosophy, new natural law theory of G. Grisez and J. Finnes, legal realism of J. Hervada, "modern" natural law theories such as L. Fuller's concept of the Rule of Law and the inner morality of law or R. Dworkin's theory of the unique right...

[pt] O advento do mundo contemporâneo trouxe uma série de questões novas à teologia moral, entre as quais se encontra o problema sobre a definição do que seja pecado mortal. As inúmeras críticas realizadas pelos teólogos revisionistas a moral dos manuais, a necessidade de criar uma moral cristã autônoma e a solicitação conciliar de uma reforma nos estudos de teologia moral nos seminários tiveram como resposta a definição de pecado mortal a partir da doutrina da opção fundamental. Porém, a promulgação da Veritatis Splendor manifestou que as intruções dos pastores da Igreja iam de encontro ao pensamento dos teólogos. Na intenção de contribuir para a solução dessa diferença entre teologia e pastoral, acredita-se que o conceito de pecado mortal de Tomás de Aquino seja o mais adequado para dissolver a disputa. Em virtude da sua dependência literária ao pensamento de Aristóteles, pretende-se destacar o caráter patrístico da obra do Aquinate para que a contribuição proposta não seja helênica, mas sim cristã. / [en] The advent of the contemporary world has brought a series of new questions to moral theology, among where is the problem of defining what a mortal sin is. The many criticisms made by the revisionist theologians to the moral of the manuals, to the need to create an autonomous Christian morality, and to the conciliar solicitude of a reform in the studies of moral theology in the seminaries, were answered by the definition of mortal sin from the doctrine of the fundamental option. However, the promulgation of Veritatis Splendor stated that the instructions of the pastors of the Church were contrary to the thinking of theologians. In order to contribute to the solution of this difference between theology and pastoral, it s believed that the concept of mortal sin of Thomas Aquinas is the most adequate to dissolve the dispute. By the virtue of it s literary dependence on Aristotle s thought, it is intended to emphasize the patristic character of Aquinas s work so that the proposed solution will not be Hellenic, but essentially Christian.

Os elos entre Direito e Psicologia são antigos, embora sua estruturação em moldes científicos tenha se dado apenas a partir do século XIX, na interface dos estudos dos saberes psicológicos com as doutrinas da lei criminal. Desse liame pontual, a conexão interdisciplinar se desenvolveu em vários outros ramos, sendo hoje vasto o campo de pesquisa. O presente trabalho visa abordar as relações entre os saberes psicológicos suscitados em material produzido na Faculdade de Direito de São Paulo no período crítico do nascimento da psicologia científica no Brasil e sua relação com os conceitos de Direito Natural vigentes à época. A escolha do Direito Natural, é em virtude deste ser mais adequado à análise psicológica, interessando ao estudo o embasamento filosófico/psicológico do Direito e não as leis em específico. O período estudado coincide com a Primeira República no Brasil. Neste momento há alterações significantes no contexto educacional, onde várias reformas promovem a transição do ensino clássico para uma matriz pragmático-científica; e no contexto dos saberes psicológicos, tendo em vista que a psicologia filosófica está em momento de transição de pensamentos da escola sensualista francesa, do empirismo e do ecletismo espiritualista para uma tradição positivista. No contexto jurídico se apresenta a Constituição de 1891, promulgada pela constituinte após breve governo de exceção dos militares, sendo este um período de instabilidade político-jurídica. Foram encontradas como objeto três teses. Duas são de José de Alcântara de Machado D\'Oliveira, sendo estas \"A embriaguez e a responsabilidade civil\" e \"Ensaio Médico-Legal sobre o hypnotismo\" e a outra de Candido Motta, denominada \"Classificação dos criminosos\". Os métodos utilizados na análise dos dados foram a Historiografia da Psicologia Científica e a análise conceitual dos documentos através do método da História Cultural. Os dados atuais permitem dizer que há apropriação dos principais conceitos de filosofia positivista da época, inclusive a eugenia spenceriana/lombrosiana no caso de Candido Motta, cuja tese visa ser uma manual de consulta na classificação do criminoso. Jose D\'Oliveira busca lançar nova luz sobre um problema recorrente da época e relevante ainda hoje - a embriaguez e a responsabilidade civil - e sobre o hipnotismo, com um viés igualmente científico-positivista. As concepções de Direito Natural se apresentam em momento de transição entre uma visão majoritariamente tomista, em que o Direito Natural está em conexão com o divino, para uma concepção antropológico-científica, onde este deriva da vivência dos povos. É possível discutir, com base nos dados coletados e analisados, que há consonância entre as concepções de Direito Natural e os saberes psicológicos utilizados pelos autores. Predomina a transição para modelos positivistas, visando incorporar as descobertas das ciências naturais. Os modelos baseados em concepções mais humanísticas, religiosas e filosóficas, segundo o positivismo de Comte, estariam no estado \'metafísico\' da humanidade, sendo necessária adoção das teorias condizentes com o terceiro e último estado, o \'científico\'. As concepções que eram predominantemente metafísicas começam a se estruturar como organicistas neste momento, antes de se configurarem como psicologizantes em momento posterior. Apoio financeiro/Bolsa: FAPESP / The links between Legal knowledge and Psychology are ancient, albeit it\'s structuration in scientific molds only having begun in the nineteenth century, in the junction of psychological knowledge and criminal Law doctrines. From this knot, interdisciplinary connections have developed in many branches, leaving a fertile research field. The current work intends to stretch out to the relations existent between psychological knowledge raised in material produced in Faculdade de Direito de São Paulo in the critical period of scientific psychology\'s birth in Brazil and it\'s relation with the concepts of natural Law of the period. The choice for natural law has to do with it being more prone to psychological analysis, being the interest of this study the philosohical and psychological basis of Law, not specific legislation. The time period in question matches the one of the First Republic of Brazil. In this moment there are significant alterations in the educational context, where several measures promote transition from classical teaching to a pragmatic-scientific matrix; and in the contexto of psychological knowledge, having in sight that phylosophical psychology is in a moment of transition from french sensualism, empirism and spiritualist eccleticism to a positivist tradition. In the legal context, 1891\'s Constitution is presented to the people after a brief period of military government, making it a period of political and legal instability. Three theses were found as objects of the research. Two of them from José de Alcântara de Machado D\'Oliveira, being those \"A embriaguez e a responsabilidade civil\" e \"Ensaio Médico-Legal sobre o hypnotismo\" and the other from Candido Motta, named\"Classificação dos criminosos\". The methods utilized in the analysis were Historiography of Scientific Psychology and concetual analysis of the documents through the method of Cultural History. Data shows that there is appropriation of the main concepts of the time\'s positivism philosophy, including spencerian/lombrosian eugenics in the case of Candido Motta, whose theses aims to be a consulting manual on criminal classification. Jose D\'Oliveira sheds new light on a recurring issue of the time period and na important issue still today - drunkness and civil resposibilty - and on hypnotism, with na equally positivist approach. The concepts of Natural Law are presented in a moment of transition between a majorly thomistic view, in wich Natural Law is in connection with the divine, to a anthropological-scientifical view, where Natural Law is derived from humans themselves, liviing in groups. It is possible to discuss, based on the data collected and analysed, that there is consonance between the notions of Natural Law and Psychological Knowledge used by the authors. The transition to positivistic models is predominant, aiming to incorporate natural science\'s discoveries. The models based on humanistic, religious and phylosophical conceptions, according to Comte, would be in a \'metaphysical\' stage of humanity, thus being necessary the adoption of theories that were congruent with Comte\'s third and last stage, the \'scientific\' one. Predominantly metaphysical views started to be structured as organicist in this moment, before a properly psychological framework in a further moment. Financial Support: FAPESP

Submitted by Filipe dos Santos (fsantos@pucsp.br) on 2017-03-21T12:43:53Z No. of bitstreams: 1 José Roberto Lino Machado.pdf: 1154121 bytes, checksum: 45f6e588043df309898f0e75e86aea6c (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-03-21T12:43:53Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 José Roberto Lino Machado.pdf: 1154121 bytes, checksum: 45f6e588043df309898f0e75e86aea6c (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-03-06 / Above all, Maritain is a philosopher, although his philosophy recognizes the primacy of theology. Anyway, theology may just affront philosophy only when the later, surpassing its methodological limits, states as true what is a mistake. It is incumbent to philosophy, a science of the fundamental truths, susceptible of human acknowledgment, by reason exercise, to reflect about the origin and the destiny of being, about the collective institutions of which men participate, the rights and duties resulting from it. The same themes are versed in both sciences (theology and philosophy), but each one uses its own methodology and has its own formal object). Are these institutions natural or artificial? Is there a natural right? Is there a natural law? Maritain proposes two modes of approaching the natural law: the ontological (or ontic one) and the gnoseological (theory of knowledge). Being natural law a species of divine law, and being divine law an eternal law, natural law is an eternal law, although being acknowledged progressively or even regressively. The acknowledgment of natural law is not acquired by logical deduction, but conversely, by inclination, by inclination, by sympathetic, by heart. The positive law (law of men) must not, under punishment, disobey the natural law (law of God); however, the positive law, according to natural law, must be accomplished in conscience / Maritain é, antes de tudo, um filósofo, embora sua filosofia reconheça a primazia da teologia sobre ela. De qualquer modo, a teologia apenas pode afrontar a filosofia quando esta, extrapolando seus limites metodológicos, afirme como verdade um erro. Cabe à filosofia, como ciência das verdades fundamentais passíveis de conhecimento humano pelo exercício da razão, refletir sobre a origem e o destino do ser, sobre as instituições coletivas das quais os homens participem, os direitos e deveres disso decorrentes. São tais instituições naturais ou artificiais? Há um direito natural? Há uma lei natural? Maritain propõe dois modos de abordar a lei natural: o ontológico (ou ôntico) e o gnoseológico (teoria do conhecimento). Sendo a lei natural uma espécie de lei divina, e sendo a lei divina lei eterna, a lei natural é eterna, se bem que o conhecimento dela seja progressivo ou mesmo regressivo. Os mesmos temas são versados pela teologia, mas sob metodologia que lhe seja própria e considerando o objeto formal de cada uma das duas ciências ora referidas. O conhecimento da lei natural não se adquire por dedução matemática, mas, ao contrário, por inclinação, por simpatia, pelo coração. A lei positiva (lei dos homens) não pode contrariar a lei natural (lei de Deus), sob pena de ser ela mesma descumprida; no entanto, a lei positiva conforme à lei natural deve ser cumprida em consciência

Os estudos da obra de Hugo Grotius apontam a sua importância para a constituição de um conceito moderno de direito natural. A análise do conteúdo de suas principais obras políticas, De Jure Praedae Commentarius e De Jure Belli ac Pacis, permitiu a identificação de noções inspiradas no estoicismo e no ecletismo romano, principalmente de Sêneca e Cícero, sobretudo no que diz respeito ao direito natural. Além disso, a abordagem jusnaturalista do autor serve de base para fundamentar seus argumentos em defesa da possibilidade de se empreender uma guerra justa. Deste modo, uma análise do direito natural grociano requer a reflexão sobre estes dois aspectos. Com vistas a compreender a origem dos conceitos de lei natural e direito natural e as consequências que Grotius retira deles, a presente dissertação investigou a possível influência estoica e eclética na concepção de direito natural formulada por Groitus e o vínculo existente entre esta formulação e a teoria grociana da guerra e da pena. / Studies of Hugo Grotius\'s work suggest its relevance for the constitution of a modern concept of natural law. The analysis of the content of his main political works, De Jure Praedae Commentarius and De Jure Belli ac Pacis, opened space for the identification of concepts inspired by the Roman stoicism and eclecticism, specially from Seneca and Cicero, mainly regarding the natural law. Moreover, the author\'s jusnaturalistic approach serves as a base to support his arguments in defence of the possibility to wage a just war. Therefore, an analysis of the Grotian natural law requires a reflection upon these two aspects. Aiming at comprehending the origin of the concepts of natural law and natural rights and the consequences Grotius retrieves from them, the present dissertation investigates a possible stoic and eclectic infuence on the conception of natural rights formulated by Grotius and the link between this formulation and the Grotian\'s theory of war and punishment.

L'État de droit se présente comme un ensemble de règles juridiques qui limite la puissance souveraine et préserve les droits individuels. Avant que la Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen de 1789 n'acquière en France une véritable autorité constitutionnelle, la loi naturelle légitimait le politique. Si Rousseau a donné à la loi un fondement philosophique avec la volonté générale, Montesquieu a accordé à la concurrence une fonction primordiale dans la reconnaissance conjuguée de la liberté et de la propriété des hommes. A cette époque, l'économie donnait à l'intérêt particulier une importance toute nouvelle et la concurrence entre les hommes devenait même un modèle pour l'organisation politique. Alors que Montesquieu et les économistes associent l'autorité du souverain et l'expression libre de l'intérêt particulier, la société doit reposer d'après Rousseau sur le droit politique. Si les philosophies de Montesquieu et de Rousseau se rejoignent sur les questions du respect de la liberté et de la sûreté des personnes, l'une détaille les principaux modes d'organisation politique et prescrit de limiter la puissance de l'exécutif, l'autre pose la toute-puissance du souverain. Cependant, l'histoire des différents apports philosophiques, anthropologiques, économiques et juridiques du XVIIIe siècle permet de nuancer, sans les diminuer, leur influence politique sur les thèmes de l'intérêt particulier et de l'intérêt général, tels qu'ils sont aujourd'hui discutés, en France, par des juristes. / The Rule of Law is a group of legal rules which limit the sovereign power and preserve the individual rights. Before the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789 established a genuine constitutional authority in France, the natural law legitimized politics. At that time, the economy gave to the interest more importance to individual interest and competition between men became a model for the political organization. While Montesquieu and the political economists combine sovereign authority and the self-expression of the vested interest, Rousseau founded society on political right and identified the general will as the guiding principle of political acts. If political philosophers Montesquieu and Rousseau agreed on the respect of freedom and the safety of people, the former detailed the main methods of political organization and called for a restriction of the executive power while the latter confirmed the all- mighty sovereign. The history of the different philosophical, anthropological, economical and legal inputs allows us to moderate the political influences of Montesquieu and Rousseau on the main themes of vested interest, general interest - discussed nowadays in France by legal experts - without reducing them.

This dissertation discusses the life and the writings of the seventeenth-century Dutch Cartesian Johannes Swartenhengst (1644-1711). Thus far Swartenhengst has always been an obscure and little-noticed figure in the history of the Early Dutch Enlightenment, who is only briefly mentioned in a couple of secondary sources due to his intellectual association with the Flemish philosopher Arnold Geulincx (1624-69). In recent years I have discovered fourteen previously unknown disputations that Swartenhengst presided over during his career as lector at Leiden in the early 1670s. Swartenhengst’s appointment at this university was, however, soon terminated on account of his overzealous defence of Cartesian philosophy, and no significant details have remained from his life hereafter. Although Swartenhengst’s disputations bear a somewhat concise and impersonal character (as is typical for the genre), they touch upon all the major philosophical disciplines that were then taught at the university. Swartenhengst’s dismissal occurred at a particularly heated moment, when the ecclesiastical pressure that had been building up since the political changes of 1672 now finally culminated at the university. His disputations, therefore, provide us with an interesting example of the Cartesian views that were circulating in academic circles, but which were apparently no longer tolerated. More importantly, however, Swartenhengst’s disputations also provide us with an interesting case study of the immediate continuation of Geulincx’s philosophy at Leiden, whose views soon disappeared into oblivion on account of their association with Spinozism during the early eighteenth century. Apart from offering a detailed account of Swartenhengst’s biographical details and a discussion of the major theological problems that were associated with René Descartes’ philosophy, this dissertation also includes an analysis of the content of his disputations, which focuses on the topics of occasionalism, epistemology, and natural law. Finally it will be asked how closely Swartenhengst’s disputations related to the views of his teacher Arnold Geulincx; and whether he should be labelled a ‘radical Cartesian’ on account of the content of his teaching? Although Swartenhengst was only a minor player in the history of the Early Dutch Enlightenment, the details of his life and writings certainly represent a unique and interesting story, which can also contribute to our general understanding of the period.

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Os Dois tratados sobre o governo, de John Locke, têm um papel de destaque na filosofia política das Luzes. Neles, ao afirmar as idéias de liberdade e igualdade naturais dos homens, o autor mina as bases do pensamento absolutista. Apesar de ser no Segundo tratado que o autor estabelece de modo mais evidente sua teoria política, é importante notar que o pressuposto lógico desta obra é o Primeiro tratado sobre o governo, texto menos conhecido e estudado pela história da filosofia, no qual Locke refuta de forma minuciosa as idéias de Robert Filmer, sistematizador da doutrina patriarcalista e do direito divino dos reis. Ao rejeitar argumentos de Filmer, Locke mostra que o poder político não se constitui apenas de vontade, mas envolve consenso, lei e entendimento. O propósito deste trabalho é apresentar o lado menos conhecido desse debate: os argumentos elaborados por Filmer para criticar a teoria da soberania popular e o contratualismo nem sempre são respondidos com eficácia absoluta por Locke. Além disso, a intenção é também expor o quanto o pensamento lockiano é marcado pelas asserções de Filmer, cujas idéias podem ter mais importância do que história da filosofia lhe tem atribuído. / John Locke\'s \"Two Treatises on Government\" have an important role in the political philosophy of the Enlightenment. By stating the ideas of the natural liberty and equality of men, the author undermines the bases of the absolutist thought. If it is in the Second Treatise that the author establishes his political theory in a more evident way, it is important to notice that the logical presupposition of this work is the First Treatise on Government, a less known text in which Locke refutes in a minutious way the ideas of Robert Filmer, who sistematized the patriarchalist doctrine, as well as the one concerning the divine right of kings. By rejecting Filmer\'s statements, Locke shows that political power is not constituted only by will, but involves consent, law and understanding. This work aims to present an aspect of this debate which is less known: the arguments elaborated by Filmer to criticize the theory of popular sovereignty as well as contractarianism are not always answered with total eficacy by Locke. Besides, we intend to expose how much the Lockean thought is determined by Filmer, whose thought may have a greater importance than what the history of philosophy has attributed to it.