South Africa and the rest of the world currently face an exacerbating threat of environmental degradation, which can be partly ascribed to the fact that some parts of society still place economic growth as a priority over environmental conservation. This study shows that such an approach is only profitable over the short term and actually causes more harm than good. On the other hand, the world is still recovering from the major 2008 global financial crisis. To tip the scale back into balance, it is crucial that economic -, social -, and environmental development be sustainable; from now and into the future. This study recognises that, to achieve sustainable development at all three levels, a transition to a green economy is needed. In essence a green economy requires investment in the environment for the benefit of both society and the economy. This study then goes on to show that ecotourism can be used as a manner to invest in the environment, whilst at the same time uplifting society and improving the economy. Subsequently it is identified as a key driver of a green economy. However, a daunting reality is that ecotourism developments and - activities also threaten the environment. This study therefore argues that ecotourism has to be regulated effectively; otherwise it will not live up to its purpose and may, as a result, curtail South Africa’s efforts of a transition to a green economy, instead of positively contributing to it. This study asks the question: Does South Africa’s environmental legislation provide for the effective regulation of ecotourism? This question is answered by considering whether various relevant pieces of national environmental legislation measure up to certain criteria that is inherent to the effective regulation of ecotourism. Finally this study serves to show that; from an environmental law perspective, and to the extent that this study investigated the ecotourism environment, ecotourism as a phenomenon is regulated effectively in South Africa. However, it appears that there still remains tremendous scope for improvement. / LLM (Environmental Law and Governance), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

South Africa and the rest of the world currently face an exacerbating threat of environmental degradation, which can be partly ascribed to the fact that some parts of society still place economic growth as a priority over environmental conservation. This study shows that such an approach is only profitable over the short term and actually causes more harm than good. On the other hand, the world is still recovering from the major 2008 global financial crisis. To tip the scale back into balance, it is crucial that economic -, social -, and environmental development be sustainable; from now and into the future. This study recognises that, to achieve sustainable development at all three levels, a transition to a green economy is needed. In essence a green economy requires investment in the environment for the benefit of both society and the economy. This study then goes on to show that ecotourism can be used as a manner to invest in the environment, whilst at the same time uplifting society and improving the economy. Subsequently it is identified as a key driver of a green economy. However, a daunting reality is that ecotourism developments and - activities also threaten the environment. This study therefore argues that ecotourism has to be regulated effectively; otherwise it will not live up to its purpose and may, as a result, curtail South Africa’s efforts of a transition to a green economy, instead of positively contributing to it. This study asks the question: Does South Africa’s environmental legislation provide for the effective regulation of ecotourism? This question is answered by considering whether various relevant pieces of national environmental legislation measure up to certain criteria that is inherent to the effective regulation of ecotourism. Finally this study serves to show that; from an environmental law perspective, and to the extent that this study investigated the ecotourism environment, ecotourism as a phenomenon is regulated effectively in South Africa. However, it appears that there still remains tremendous scope for improvement. / LLM (Environmental Law and Governance), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Nature–based tourism destinations have shown significant growth over the past decade and, with the ever increasing numbers of tourists travelling to national parks, the right management structures, goals and objectives need to be determined. South African National Parks (SANParks) manages all 22 national parks in South Africa with the Kruger National Park (KNP) being the biggest of them all and generating more than 80% of SANParks income. The KNP is one of the world’s largest parks conserving a staggering 1 962 362 ha of land which is bigger than countries such as Israel and Holland. When taking the KNP into perspective, park management must have the right management styles and factors in place to ensure that the park is managed in a sustainable manner and exceeds the expectations of the tourist to provide a memorable experience whilst visiting the KNP. The goal of this study was therefore to determine the critical management aspects or critical success factors (CSFs) needed to create a memorable visitor experience at the park. This goal was achieved by conducting a questionnaire survey at four rest camps within the KNP from 27 December 2010 to 4 January 2011. The rest camps used for the survey were: Skukuza (152 questionnaires), Berg and Dal (98 questionnaires), Lower Sabie (85 questionnaires) and Satara (101 questionnaires). During this time a total of 436 questionnaires were completed and included in further analysis. In Article 1, the key management aspects that visitors regard as important for a memorable visitor experience at the KNP were identified. These CSFs assist management in providing quality services and products for the tourist, leading to a memorable experience. A factor analysis was performed on the expectations of the tourists to national parks. There were nine CSFs identified that management can implement to ensure a memorable visitor experience. The three factors that have not yet been identified in previous research were wildlife experience, interpretation and luxuries. Other factors that have been identified were General management, Variety activities, Accommodation, Green management, Hospitality management, and Facilities. The results showed that park management needs to become aware of what the visitor sees as important factors for a memorable visitor experience and they can adapt certain aspects to improve the visitor’s experience. In Article 2, gaps within the park management were identified. These gaps were measured by taking the 62 variables and asking the tourist what their expectations were with regard to a memorable experience versus their actual/real experience at the park. A factor analysis on the expectations and the actual/real experiences was done and each of these factors was given a score. The scores of each factor were measured against one another indicating the differences and gaps in management. The twelve factors that were identified were General management, Education activities. Accommodation facilities, Green management, Information provided, Layout of the park, Wildlife, Facilities in the park, Food and Beverage management, Interpretive activities, Bookings and General services, and Outdoor activities. These twelve factors have also been grouped into three sub groups containing four factors each and either the expectations were exceeded, did not meet expectations or were neutral. The main gaps were Education, Accommodation facilities, Interpretations facilities and Wildlife. If management want to ensure a memorable visitor experience at the KNP they must not only focus on these gaps, but also strive to exceed visitors’ expectations on all levels. This research found that there are certain CSFs for managing a national park and gaps within park management that need to be addressed. These gaps or problem areas can be overcome by the implementation of a continuous evaluation process that will ensure effective and efficient management of the park. Park management can therefore improve their services and products as well as the quality thereof by knowing what the tourists see as important when visiting a national park to obtain a memorable experience that will lead to positive word of mouth, loyalty, increased revenue and sustainability of the KNP. Even though it is not a requirement of a masters’ dissertation to make a contribution, this research has made a significant contribution towards the methodology as the method applied determined the gaps in visitor experience and expectations and this has not been used before. Future research can make use of this type of method determining individuals’ expectations and experiences when visiting a national park or any other nature–based destination. / Thesis (M.Com. (Tourism))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

Nature–based tourism destinations have shown significant growth over the past decade and, with the ever increasing numbers of tourists travelling to national parks, the right management structures, goals and objectives need to be determined. South African National Parks (SANParks) manages all 22 national parks in South Africa with the Kruger National Park (KNP) being the biggest of them all and generating more than 80% of SANParks income. The KNP is one of the world’s largest parks conserving a staggering 1 962 362 ha of land which is bigger than countries such as Israel and Holland. When taking the KNP into perspective, park management must have the right management styles and factors in place to ensure that the park is managed in a sustainable manner and exceeds the expectations of the tourist to provide a memorable experience whilst visiting the KNP. The goal of this study was therefore to determine the critical management aspects or critical success factors (CSFs) needed to create a memorable visitor experience at the park. This goal was achieved by conducting a questionnaire survey at four rest camps within the KNP from 27 December 2010 to 4 January 2011. The rest camps used for the survey were: Skukuza (152 questionnaires), Berg and Dal (98 questionnaires), Lower Sabie (85 questionnaires) and Satara (101 questionnaires). During this time a total of 436 questionnaires were completed and included in further analysis. In Article 1, the key management aspects that visitors regard as important for a memorable visitor experience at the KNP were identified. These CSFs assist management in providing quality services and products for the tourist, leading to a memorable experience. A factor analysis was performed on the expectations of the tourists to national parks. There were nine CSFs identified that management can implement to ensure a memorable visitor experience. The three factors that have not yet been identified in previous research were wildlife experience, interpretation and luxuries. Other factors that have been identified were General management, Variety activities, Accommodation, Green management, Hospitality management, and Facilities. The results showed that park management needs to become aware of what the visitor sees as important factors for a memorable visitor experience and they can adapt certain aspects to improve the visitor’s experience. In Article 2, gaps within the park management were identified. These gaps were measured by taking the 62 variables and asking the tourist what their expectations were with regard to a memorable experience versus their actual/real experience at the park. A factor analysis on the expectations and the actual/real experiences was done and each of these factors was given a score. The scores of each factor were measured against one another indicating the differences and gaps in management. The twelve factors that were identified were General management, Education activities. Accommodation facilities, Green management, Information provided, Layout of the park, Wildlife, Facilities in the park, Food and Beverage management, Interpretive activities, Bookings and General services, and Outdoor activities. These twelve factors have also been grouped into three sub groups containing four factors each and either the expectations were exceeded, did not meet expectations or were neutral. The main gaps were Education, Accommodation facilities, Interpretations facilities and Wildlife. If management want to ensure a memorable visitor experience at the KNP they must not only focus on these gaps, but also strive to exceed visitors’ expectations on all levels. This research found that there are certain CSFs for managing a national park and gaps within park management that need to be addressed. These gaps or problem areas can be overcome by the implementation of a continuous evaluation process that will ensure effective and efficient management of the park. Park management can therefore improve their services and products as well as the quality thereof by knowing what the tourists see as important when visiting a national park to obtain a memorable experience that will lead to positive word of mouth, loyalty, increased revenue and sustainability of the KNP. Even though it is not a requirement of a masters’ dissertation to make a contribution, this research has made a significant contribution towards the methodology as the method applied determined the gaps in visitor experience and expectations and this has not been used before. Future research can make use of this type of method determining individuals’ expectations and experiences when visiting a national park or any other nature–based destination. / Thesis (M.Com. (Tourism))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

This thesis has set out to shine a light on the prevalence of outdoor recreation in regional strategies, regarding how friluftsliv can contribute to regional development and growth. In the context of the outdoor recreation goals, friluftsliv has been pushed to be involved within the regional development and spatial planning process in regions. However, the extent of measures to involve friluftsliv in RDS/P (Regional Development Strategy/Plan) from regional authorities are far in-between. The County Administrative Board (TCAB) on the other hand, are actively working within their regions on how to involve friluftsliv in the spatial planning process, partly because of difference in responsibility factors from the two authorities. The same can be said regarding the many similarities and differences found primarily in the work from TCABs. For example, how friluftsliv frequently is described to have a positive contribution on citizens well-being and quality of life, that in-turn positively impact aspects of regional development, while some discuss the implications of friluftsliv on the environment. Friluftsliv can work as a catalyst for regional development, although it can be argued to be geographically dependant for commercial activities, while its indirect social, economic, and environmental contributions are not geography dependant. One conclusion made in the thesis is that a more transcending planning process regionally to promote friluftsliv is needed, where both the regions and TCAB carry out the planning in unison with the SEPA (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency) to spread the needed knowledge for the purpose of smart spatial planning between the authorities. / Denna masteruppsats har syftat till att belysa förekomsten av friluftsliv i regionala strategier, relaterat till hur friluftsliv kan bidra till regional utveckling och tillväxt. Detta analyserades i samband med uppkomsten av friluftslivsmålen, där friluftsliv är syftat till att vara involverad i den regionala utvecklingen och den fysiska planeringsprocessen i regioner. Emellertid är omfattningen av åtgärder för att involvera friluftsliv i RUS/P (Regional Utvecklingsstrategi/Plan) från regionala myndigheter låga. Länsstyrelserna å andra sidan arbetar aktivt inom sina regioner för att involvera friluftsliv i den fysiska planeringsprocessen. Detta är på grund av den skillnaden i ansvarsområden över specifika faktorer mellan de två myndigheterna. Detsamma kan kopplas till de många likheter och skillnader som främst återfinns i Länsstyrelsernas arbete. Exempelvis hur friluftsliv ofta beskrivs bidra på ett positivt sätt för medborgarens välbefinnande och livskvalitet, som i sin tur positivt påverkar många aspekter av regional utveckling, medan vissa fokuserar på att diskutera konsekvenserna av friluftsliv på miljön. Friluftsliv kan fungera som en katalysator för regional utveckling, även om friluftslivets kommersiella verksamhetsmöjligheter kan påstås vara geografiskt beroende kan dock dess indirekta sociala, ekonomiska och miljömässiga bidrag för regional utveckling syftas till att vara geografiskt oberoende. En slutsats som gjorts i uppsatsen är att en mer övergripande planeringsprocess regionalt för att främja friluftsliv behövs, där både regionerna och Länsstyrelserna genomför planeringen i överensstämmelse med Naturvårdsverket för att sprida den nödvändiga kunskapen i syfte att engagera i aktiv diskussion för främjandet av smart rumslig planering mellan myndigheterna.

Enligt Tillväxtverket (2019) har den totala konsumtionen inom svensk turismnäring ökat med 124% mellan åren 2000–2018. Denna trend kan även utläsas för den svenska naturturismen där en studie från Mittuniversitet (2014) visade att det inom naturturism omsätts ca 3.6 miljarder kronor varje år och att 40% av företagen var i en tillväxtfas (Fredman, Margaryan, 2014). En form av naturturism som växt sig stark norra Sverige under senare år är norrskenturismen (Jóhannesson & Lund, 2017; Mathisen, 2017; Friedman, 2010), som i enbart Kiruna kommun beräknas omsätta runt 100 miljoner varje år (Naturturismföretagen. 2019). Idag är denna typ av turism framförallt koncentrerad till landsbygden med långa avstånd och höga resekostnader som följd. Samtidigt som många turister har en negativ påverkan på djur och natur (Björnsdóttir, 2015). Syftet med studien är således att ta fram och föra en diskussion kring vilka aspekter av en belysningsanläggning som är viktiga för att göra norrskensturismen mer stadsnära och tillgänglig för en större del av befolkningen. Arbetet ska även ge förslag på generella anpassningar av den artificiella belysningen som kan appliceras på anläggningen. Metoden som används är en kombination av litteraturstudie, intervjuer och en analys av befintliga belysningsprogram. Litteraturstudien gav en bakgrundsundersökning inom ämnet samt tydliggjorde hur studiens syfte skulle formuleras. Intervjuerna genomfördes med fyra ljusdesigners där deras tankar och idéer gällande vilka aspekter som anses viktiga för att skapa en stadsnära norrskensturism. I studiens sista steg analyserades redan befintliga belysningsprogram från städer där belysningsanläggningen anpassats för att minimera stadens ljusföroreningar. Analyserna gav sedan konkreta åtgärdsförslag som jämfördes med intervjudeltagarnas resonemang. Studiens resultat visar på att armaturavskärmning, ljusfördelning, ljuspunktshöjder och belysningsstyrning anses vara de viktigaste aspekterna för den artificiella belysningen. Lagar, standarder och andra former av styrdokument är en annan aspekt som ofta togs upp, med resonemang för hur dessa kan påverka en belysningsanläggnings hösta respektive lägsta nivå. Gällande de generella förslagen på anpassningar redovisas att både anpassningar av ljuskällors färgtemperaturer och ljusriktning kan appliceras på en anläggning förhållandevis enkelt. Men att en väl anpassad belysningsstyrning är svårare, det ska dock tilläggas att denna anpassning kan ha större och mer positiv påverkan för en norrskensanpassad belysningsanläggning. Till de personer som vill utveckla denna typ av projekt rekommenderas att i ett tidigt skede blanda in eventuella intressenter och ta hänsyn till deras aspekter. Arbetets ämnesområde är relativt outforskat och en väl utförd förstudie inför projektet är därför av stor vikt för att minimera eventuella misstag. Studien begränsas av att enbart ta hänsyn till och föra en diskussion kring de aspekter som uppkommit under intervjuerna. Dessa aspekter är endast hämtade ur en ljusdesigners perspektiv och tydliggör således inte andra intressenters intressen inom ämnet. / According to The Swedish Agency for Economic and Regional Growth (2019) the total consumption of tourism in Sweden has grown with 124% between the years 2000-2018. This trend that also applies for the Swedish nature-tourism where a study from Mid Sweden University (2014) shows that nature-based tourism each year has approximately 3.6 billion SEK in turnover, and that 40% of concerned businesses is in a phase of growth (Fredman & Margaryan, 2014). Northern light-tourism is a form of nature-tourism that has grown quickly in northern Sweden in recent years (Jóhannesson & Lund, 2017; Mathisen, 2017; Friedman, 2010). In Kiruna alone it is estimated that the northern light tourism alone has a revenue of 100 million SEK each year (Swedish Nature and Ecotourism Association, 2019). This form of tourism often has a high traveling costs and is concentrated to the countryside with far traveling distances between each site. In the same time, a lot of tourists on the countryside has a negative impact on the nature and wildlife (Björnsdóttir, 2015). The purpose of this study is therefore to point out and discuss around different aspects concerning the artificial lighting with an impact on how we can develop a northern light- tourism in a more urban environment. The study shall also give general suggestions for how these aspects can be adapted into a light installation. The method that is use in this research is a literature study, interviews and an analyse of four cities’ lighting masterplans. The literature study was used to specify the foundation and aim of the study. Where the interviews clarified the important aspect for an urban development of northern light-tourism from a lighting designers’ point of view. In the last phase of the study, four lighting masterplans with a clear focus on how to prevent light pollution where analysed. These analyses then gave some action proposals that can be compared to the answers from the interview participants. The results from the study show that shielded luminaires, light distributions, luminaire installation height and lighting controls are considered to have the largest impact on the lighting installation regarding the visibility of the northern light. Also, laws and regulations were a common answer, with some reasoning about the regulations of max and min requirements from an installation. Regarding the general proposals some suggestions concerning luminaire colour temperature and light distribution can quite easy be applied to an installation, in comparison to a more complicated lighting control. To everyone that would like to develop a project of this kind it is recommended that in an early stage get in contact with any stakeholders and listen to their opinions. In that way any mistakes are minimised even though the topic of this study is relatively unexplored.The study is limited to only show and discuss the answers that came up under the interviews, and that these answers is only reproduced from a lighting designers’ point of view.

This study was supported by Parks Canada / Les parcs nationaux jouent un rôle central à la fois dans la politique de conservation de la biodiversité et dans l'accès du public à la nature. Donc, la gestion de ces espaces est loin d'être simple. Représentant le premier service de parcs au monde avec l'un des budgets les plus substantiels pour la gestion des parcs à l'échelle mondiale, le système de parcs nationaux du Canada constitue un cas emblématique à explorer. Cette dissertation examine comment Parcs Canada gouverne les parcs nationaux, les raisonnements qui sous-tendent les processus décisionnels, les acteurs impliqués dans le processus de gouvernance, ainsi que les sujets qui sont régis. J'examine les points de vue des représentants de Parcs Canada, des organisations et des municipalités à différentes échelles, au niveau fédéral ainsi que dans deux études de cas spécifiques : le parc national Jasper en Alberta et le parc national de La Mauricie au Québec. À travers une série de stratégies de recherche qualitative déployées entre 2020 et 2023, mon étude adopte une analyse à plusieurs échelles pour explorer comment l'État négocie les tensions qui surgissent entre les différentes dimensions scientifiques, économiques et sociales qui sous-tendent la gouvernance des parcs. En m'appuyant sur 54 entretiens semi-structurés, une analyse d'archives et de documents ainsi que des supports visuels, ma thèse rassemble un cadre conceptuel ancré dans la construction sociale de la nature, la gouvernance de la conservation, le tourisme, la citoyenneté, l'espace public et l'inclusion. J'utilise une analyse de discours pour examiner les fondements des raisonnements qui sous-tendent la manière dont les scientifiques, les décideurs politiques, les planificateurs, les représentants municipaux et les chambres de tourisme comprennent et encadrent la gouvernance des parcs. Cette thèse aborde trois questions de recherche distinctes pour comprendre comment les parcs nationaux sont gouvernés. La première cherche à comprendre comment les différentes conceptualisations scientifiques de la Nature ont façonné la gouvernance des parcs nationaux. L'analyse interroge l'émergence du concept d'intégrité écologique en tant qu'élément central de la gestion scientifique contemporaine et des efforts de restauration d'écosystèmes particuliers. À travers les exemples de la gestion des arbres et des poissons, le chapitre illustre comment les scientifiques et les gestionnaires tentent de restaurer l'intégrité écologique dans des écosystèmes qui ont été historiquement transformés à la fois pour l'extraction capitaliste et l'utilisation récréative. La reproduction de l'idée de la nature sauvage, ou d'une nature vierge non habitée par les humains, sous-tend l'idée d'intégrité. En tant que tel, je soutiens que l'intégrité écologique ne reconnaît pas l'agence des humains dans les écologies passées et dans la restauration en tant que pratique scientifique. Ma deuxième question de recherche examine les motivations économiques qui influent sur la gouvernance des parcs, ainsi que la mesure dans laquelle le Canada a adopté des orientations néolibérales. Mes conclusions indiquent que, malgré les efforts récents pour augmenter les revenus basés sur la visite, Parcs Canada n'a pas pleinement adopté une logique de gouvernance néolibérale. À la place, d'autres rationales se sont développées, privilégiant l'accès gratuit à des groupes sociaux spécifiques, notamment les jeunes, les enfants, les nouveaux citoyens et les résidents permanents, afin de maintenir l'importance politique des parcs parmi les Canadiens. Bien que la pression pour étendre le rôle de l'industrie touristique persiste, je soutiens que Parcs Canada résiste à une plus grande marchandisation et privatisation. La troisième question de recherche examine comment les parcs nationaux sont conceptualisés en tant qu'espaces publics et pour qui ils sont gouvernés. Mon enquête révèle des asymétries de pouvoir dans la production des expériences de plein air, où l'accès est disponible pour certaines personnes tandis qu'il est limité pour d'autres. J'examine différentes dimensions de l'inclusion au sein des politiques des parcs nationaux, ainsi que leur mise en œuvre dans les deux études de cas. Mon argument affirme que la gestion des parcs doit encore pleinement intégrer une compréhension des besoins spatiaux et récréatifs des citoyens et des utilisateurs culturellement diversifiés. Par conséquent, les immigrants et d'autres groupes socioculturels ressentent un sentiment d'exclusion dans ces espaces publics. Les parcs nationaux sont de plus en plus considérés comme un espace clé dans la lutte pour un droit social à la nature. Mes conclusions montrent que les parcs nationaux sont des territoires où les efforts de l'État pour faire face à la perte de biodiversité ainsi que la demande collective croissante d'accès aux espaces verts publics convergent. En tant que tels, deviennent des sites d'expérimentation dirigés par l'État dans les approches envers la nature et la citoyenneté. Cette étude met en lumière les tensions et les complexités inhérentes à la gestion de ces sites, tout en explorant le processus imaginatif de création de relations alternatives entre les humains et la nature. / National parks are central to both the politics of biodiversity conservation and public access to nature. In light of this, managing these spaces is far from simple. Representing the world’s first park service with one of the most substantial budgets for park management at the global scale, Canada's national park system is an iconic case to explore. This dissertation examines how Parks Canada governs national parks, the rationales that underpin decision-making processes, the actors who are involved in the governance process, as well as the subjects who are governed. I examine the perspectives of Parks Canada representatives, organizations and municipalities at different scales, including at the federal level as well as two specific case studies: Jasper National Park in Alberta and La Mauricie National Park in Quebec. Through a range of qualitative research strategies deployed between 2020 and 2023, my study adopts a multi-scaled and multi-site analysis to explore how the state negotiates the tensions that arise between the different scientific, economic, and social imperatives that underpin park governance. Drawing on 54 semi-structured interviews, archival and document analysis as well as visual materials, my dissertation brings together a conceptual framework grounded in the social construction of nature, conservation governance, tourism, citizenship, public space, and inclusion. I use discourse analysis to examine the rationales that underpin the way diverse actors, scientists, policy makers, planners, municipal representatives, and tourism chambers understand and frame how parks are governed. This dissertation addresses three distinct research questions to understand how national parks are governed. The first seeks to understand how different scientific conceptualizations of Nature have shaped the governance of national parks. The analysis interrogates the emergence of the concept of ecological integrity as central to contemporary scientific management and efforts to restore particular ecosystems. Through the examples of tree and fish management, chapter 5 illustrates the ways scientists and managers attempt to restore ecological integrity in ecosystems that have been transformed historically for both capitalist extraction and recreational use. The reproduction of the idea of wilderness, or a pristine nature uninhabited by humans, underpins the idea of integrity. As such, I argue that ecological integrity fails to acknowledge the agency of humans in past ecologies and in restoration as a scientific practice. My second research question examines the degree to which neoliberalism has influenced financial governance of national parks in Canada. My findings indicate that, from their inception, Canadian national parks have been deeply rooted in capitalist structures. However, despite recent efforts to increase revenue based on visitation, Parks Canada has not fully embraced a neoliberal governance logic. Instead, other rationales have evolved which prioritize free access to specific social groups including youth, children, new citizens, and permanent residents as a means for sustaining the political importance of parks among Canadians. While pressure to expand the role of the tourist industry persists, I argue that Parks Canada is resisting further commodification and privatization. The third research question asks how national parks are conceptualized as public spaces and for whom they are governed. My investigation reveals asymmetries of power in the production of Canadian outdoor experiences, where access is available to some people while limited to others. I examine different dimensions of inclusion within national parks policies, as well as their implementation in the two case studies, Jasper and La Mauricie. My argument asserts that the management of parks has yet to fully embrace an understanding of the spatial and recreational needs of culturally diverse citizens and users. Consequently, immigrants and other sociocultural groups experience a sense of exclusion in these public spaces. National parks are increasingly viewed as a key space in the struggle for a social right to nature. My findings show that national parks are territories where state efforts to address both biodiversity loss as well as where an expanding collective demand for access to green public spaces converge. As such, national parks become sites of state-led experimentation in approaches towards nature and citizenship. This study illuminates the tensions and complexities inherent in managing these sites, while also delving into the imaginative process of generating alternative relationships between humans and nature.