A importância do petróleo tem sido revisada nos últimos anos, principalmente pelo reconhecimento de sua função estratégico-militar, tanto no século XX, onde o controle sobre este recurso permitiu a ascensão de grandes potências, como em alguns dos conflitos atuais. Estes passaram a incluir a África nas disputas globais por petróleo. O contexto mundial se torna complexo com o aprofundamento da crise petrolífera mundial, em meio a crise de acumulação de capitais e hegemonia, ambas iniciadas nos anos 1970. O aumento dos conflitos regionais e a intensa competição entre as grandes potências por recursos energéticos cada vez mais escassos, passam a ser variáveis essenciais para a análise dos problemas de Segurança Internacional. Neste contexto o continente africano, responsável por 12% da produção petrolífera mundial, ganha ainda maior relevância global por ter dobrado o volume de suas reservas, que na porção subsaariana aumentou quase três vezes desde os anos 1980. As disputas por petróleo se misturam em meio a conflitos históricos ampliando-os e gerando novos ciclos de violência. Nos maiores produtores subsaarianos como Angola, Nigéria e Sudão, ampliam e criam novas disputas entre governo e províncias produtoras. No nível global, corporações estadunidenses e chinesas passam a disputar diretamente o acesso ao petróleo africano, apoiados pelos respectivos governos que intensificam sua presença regional na forma de investimentos, acordos comerciais, diplomáticos e militares, de treinamento e defesa, transferência de armas e instalação de bases militares. Assim, o petróleo se torna central, tanto para entender a atual dinâmica destes conflitos subsaarianos, no nível regional, como nas disputas por influência no subcontinente envolvendo China e Estados Unidos. / The importance of oil has been revised in the latest years, mainly due to its strategic-military function, not only in the twentieth century, when control over this resource allowed the rise of great powers, but also in current conflicts. The latest included Africa in the global disputes over oil. Global context becomes complex as the world-wide oil crisis gets deeper, during the crisis of capital accumulation and hegemony, both having started in the 1970s. The intensification of regional conflicts and intense competition among great powers over increasingly scarce energetic resources are essential variables to the analysis of International Security problems. In this context, the African continent, responsible for 12% of world oil production, becomes globally more relevant for having doubled its reserves volume. In the subsaharan portion it has almost tripled since the 1980s. Disputes over oil make historical conflicts greater and create new cycles of violence. In the greatest sub-shaharan oil producers, such as Angola, Nigeria and Sudan these conflicts create new disputes between government and producing provinces. In a global level, North-American and Chinese corporations compete directly for access to African oil, supported by the respective governments that intensify their regional presence in the form of investments, commercial, diplomatic and military agreements, training and defense agreements, transference of weapons and installation of military bases. Thus, oil becomes central to understand the current dynamics of these sub-saharian conflicts in the regional level as well as the disputes for influence on the subcontinent involving China and United States of America.

A importância do petróleo tem sido revisada nos últimos anos, principalmente pelo reconhecimento de sua função estratégico-militar, tanto no século XX, onde o controle sobre este recurso permitiu a ascensão de grandes potências, como em alguns dos conflitos atuais. Estes passaram a incluir a África nas disputas globais por petróleo. O contexto mundial se torna complexo com o aprofundamento da crise petrolífera mundial, em meio a crise de acumulação de capitais e hegemonia, ambas iniciadas nos anos 1970. O aumento dos conflitos regionais e a intensa competição entre as grandes potências por recursos energéticos cada vez mais escassos, passam a ser variáveis essenciais para a análise dos problemas de Segurança Internacional. Neste contexto o continente africano, responsável por 12% da produção petrolífera mundial, ganha ainda maior relevância global por ter dobrado o volume de suas reservas, que na porção subsaariana aumentou quase três vezes desde os anos 1980. As disputas por petróleo se misturam em meio a conflitos históricos ampliando-os e gerando novos ciclos de violência. Nos maiores produtores subsaarianos como Angola, Nigéria e Sudão, ampliam e criam novas disputas entre governo e províncias produtoras. No nível global, corporações estadunidenses e chinesas passam a disputar diretamente o acesso ao petróleo africano, apoiados pelos respectivos governos que intensificam sua presença regional na forma de investimentos, acordos comerciais, diplomáticos e militares, de treinamento e defesa, transferência de armas e instalação de bases militares. Assim, o petróleo se torna central, tanto para entender a atual dinâmica destes conflitos subsaarianos, no nível regional, como nas disputas por influência no subcontinente envolvendo China e Estados Unidos. / The importance of oil has been revised in the latest years, mainly due to its strategic-military function, not only in the twentieth century, when control over this resource allowed the rise of great powers, but also in current conflicts. The latest included Africa in the global disputes over oil. Global context becomes complex as the world-wide oil crisis gets deeper, during the crisis of capital accumulation and hegemony, both having started in the 1970s. The intensification of regional conflicts and intense competition among great powers over increasingly scarce energetic resources are essential variables to the analysis of International Security problems. In this context, the African continent, responsible for 12% of world oil production, becomes globally more relevant for having doubled its reserves volume. In the subsaharan portion it has almost tripled since the 1980s. Disputes over oil make historical conflicts greater and create new cycles of violence. In the greatest sub-shaharan oil producers, such as Angola, Nigeria and Sudan these conflicts create new disputes between government and producing provinces. In a global level, North-American and Chinese corporations compete directly for access to African oil, supported by the respective governments that intensify their regional presence in the form of investments, commercial, diplomatic and military agreements, training and defense agreements, transference of weapons and installation of military bases. Thus, oil becomes central to understand the current dynamics of these sub-saharian conflicts in the regional level as well as the disputes for influence on the subcontinent involving China and United States of America.

A importância do petróleo tem sido revisada nos últimos anos, principalmente pelo reconhecimento de sua função estratégico-militar, tanto no século XX, onde o controle sobre este recurso permitiu a ascensão de grandes potências, como em alguns dos conflitos atuais. Estes passaram a incluir a África nas disputas globais por petróleo. O contexto mundial se torna complexo com o aprofundamento da crise petrolífera mundial, em meio a crise de acumulação de capitais e hegemonia, ambas iniciadas nos anos 1970. O aumento dos conflitos regionais e a intensa competição entre as grandes potências por recursos energéticos cada vez mais escassos, passam a ser variáveis essenciais para a análise dos problemas de Segurança Internacional. Neste contexto o continente africano, responsável por 12% da produção petrolífera mundial, ganha ainda maior relevância global por ter dobrado o volume de suas reservas, que na porção subsaariana aumentou quase três vezes desde os anos 1980. As disputas por petróleo se misturam em meio a conflitos históricos ampliando-os e gerando novos ciclos de violência. Nos maiores produtores subsaarianos como Angola, Nigéria e Sudão, ampliam e criam novas disputas entre governo e províncias produtoras. No nível global, corporações estadunidenses e chinesas passam a disputar diretamente o acesso ao petróleo africano, apoiados pelos respectivos governos que intensificam sua presença regional na forma de investimentos, acordos comerciais, diplomáticos e militares, de treinamento e defesa, transferência de armas e instalação de bases militares. Assim, o petróleo se torna central, tanto para entender a atual dinâmica destes conflitos subsaarianos, no nível regional, como nas disputas por influência no subcontinente envolvendo China e Estados Unidos. / The importance of oil has been revised in the latest years, mainly due to its strategic-military function, not only in the twentieth century, when control over this resource allowed the rise of great powers, but also in current conflicts. The latest included Africa in the global disputes over oil. Global context becomes complex as the world-wide oil crisis gets deeper, during the crisis of capital accumulation and hegemony, both having started in the 1970s. The intensification of regional conflicts and intense competition among great powers over increasingly scarce energetic resources are essential variables to the analysis of International Security problems. In this context, the African continent, responsible for 12% of world oil production, becomes globally more relevant for having doubled its reserves volume. In the subsaharan portion it has almost tripled since the 1980s. Disputes over oil make historical conflicts greater and create new cycles of violence. In the greatest sub-shaharan oil producers, such as Angola, Nigeria and Sudan these conflicts create new disputes between government and producing provinces. In a global level, North-American and Chinese corporations compete directly for access to African oil, supported by the respective governments that intensify their regional presence in the form of investments, commercial, diplomatic and military agreements, training and defense agreements, transference of weapons and installation of military bases. Thus, oil becomes central to understand the current dynamics of these sub-saharian conflicts in the regional level as well as the disputes for influence on the subcontinent involving China and United States of America.

L’intégration des multimédias (aspects pédagogiques, méthodologiques et technologiques) dans la didactique du FLE comme facteur de motivation chez les apprenants plurilingues de FLE au Nigeria. Dans notre recherche, nous nous proposons d’étudier l’usage du multimédia comme facteur de motivation chez des apprenants plurilingues et dans l’enseignement du Français Langue Etrangère (FLE) au Nigeria, un pays en voie de développement.L'un des défis auxquels est confronté l’enseignement des langues étrangères au Nigeria est la situation linguistique générale des apprenants. Avec plus de 400 langues, Le Nigeria est connu pour son "extrême diversité linguistique" (Elugbe 1994:62). Dans l'enseignement et l'apprentissage du français, les enseignants et les étudiants sont confrontés à cette réalité multilingue mais aussi à d'autres facteurs négatifs tels que le nombre d’élèves par classe, leur hétérogénéité et souvent leur manque de motivation. Nous constatons que certaines technologies ont déjà été mises en place dans presque toutes les universités nigérianes. Dans tous les ministères, les gouvernements obligent les fonctionnaires à acquérir une connaissance de base en informatique. Dans toutes les villes, il existe des cybercafés et maintenant on peut même surfer chez soi.L’enseignement hybride est un dispositif qui associe l’apprentissage traditionnel en classe avec un apprentissage médiatisé par ordinateur (Graham, 2006:5). L’apprentissage d’une langue est une pratique sociale et culturelle totale, d'autant plus quand il intègre de nouvelles technologies qui favorisent une grande variété d'interactions sociales (Kern & Warschauer, 2000). Si une approche communicative est souhaitable alors il convient de s’intéresser aux possibilités qu’offre l’apprentissage hybride pour améliorer l'enseignement et l'apprentissage des langues au Nigeria.Pour la méthodologie de recherche et la collecte de données, nous avons utilisé un questionnaire qui a été envoyé aux enseignants et aux étudiants du FLE au Nigéria pour déterminer les différentes approches et méthodes dans l’enseignement et l'apprentissage du français langue étrangère au Nigeria.En conclusion, cette recherche présente les résultats d'une étude sur les motivations des enseignants et des apprenants nigérians pour l’apprentissage du français, avec ou sans recours à des dispositifs hybrides. Cependant, nous ne pouvons pas prétendre que les résultats que nous avons obtenus seront valables pour l'ensemble du pays (Nigéria). Mais il reste cependant important de noter que ces résultats faciliteront l'application de l'apprentissage hybride (blended learning) dans le système général d'enseignement et d'apprentissage du français langue étrangère dans le pays. / The integration of multimedia (pedagogical, methodological and technological aspects) in the teaching of French language as a motivating factor for multilingual learners of French in Nigeria. In our research, we propose to study the use of multimedia as a motivating factor for multilingual learners and in the teaching of the French as a foreign language (FLE) in Nigeria, a developing country.One of the challenges of foreign language teaching and learning in Nigeria is the general language situation of learners. Nigeria is home to over 400 languages and it is known for its “extreme linguistic diversity” (Elugbe 1994:62). In teaching and learning French, both teachers and students are confronted with this multilingual reality and other factors such as the predominance of large mixed-level classes and learners’ lack of motivation.Presently, new technologies are already in place in almost all the Nigerian universities. In almost all Nigerian institutions, governments now compel teachers to acquire at least some basic knowledge in multimedia tools. Also, in most major towns and cities, there are cybercafés and access to online services. With the increase in mobile internet access, many more people can now go internet surfing from home and on the go, thus ensuring ready access to educational instructional materials.Blended Learning systems combine face-to-face instruction with computer-mediated instruction (Graham, 2006:5). Language learning is a comprehensive social and cultural experience, even more so when it involves new technologies that promote a variety of social interactions (Kern & Warschauer, 2000). If a communicative approach is desirable then blended learning should at least be examined as one potential means of improving language teaching & learning in Nigeria.For the research methodology and collection of data, we used a survey through a questionnaire which was sent to teachers and students of FLE in Nigeria to determine the various teaching methodology and approaches to learning.In conclusion, this research presents the results of a study into teachers’ and learners’ motivations for learning French and for using (or not) blended learning. However, we cannot claim that the results that were obtained will resolve the whole issues discussed in this study in relation to French language acquisition in the Nigerian context and we cannot pretend that the recommendations will be valid for the whole country (Nigeria). But it remains, however, important to note that these results/recommendations will facilitate the application of Blended learning in the general system of teaching and learning of French in the country.

D’abord sur une échelle réduite puis sur une large échelle la contrebande du kpayo, essence et produits pétroliers occupent aujourd’hui un nombre de plus en plus grand de vendeurs, on estime que 100 000 personnes sont impliquées dans ce trafic du Nigeria au Bénin. Il revêt plusieurs aspects selon qu’il emprunte la route maritime, le fleuve ou la route. Ce transport génère un grand nombre de petits métiers que nous évoquons dans la thèse qu’il s’agisse d’apporter les bidons sur la plage, de transformer les scooters ou les camions. Plus que tout, cette activité suppose aussi un réseau souvent d’origine familiale, mais aussi des accointances avec du personnel des emplois régaliens de la République. Les recherches empiriques réalisées sur des territoires aussi variés et circonscrits que peuvent l’être une station-service, un village lacustre, un marché frontalier, un débarcadère, un entrepôt ont permis d’appréhender les conditions d’approvisionnement des contrebandiers, identifier les modalités d’acheminement des produits pétroliers vers le Bénin, saisir les stratégies de contournement des contrebandiers et les risques encourus tout au long de leur trajet, examiner les interactions entre les transporteurs et les forces de l’ordre à l’occasion du passage des barrières de contrôle, apprécier l’animation des marchés et enfin cerner le rôle des différents acteurs en présence. L’analyse des réseaux marchands, des parcours biographiques, des stratégies d’acteurs, des logiques d’accumulation et des rapports de l’économie informelle à la loi situe cette recherche au croisement de l’anthropologie économique, de la géographie du commerce, de la sociologie de la précarité, et de la sociologie politique. / First of all on a small scale, then further along, on a much larger scale, the kpayo trade which means smuggling of gas and other oil products from Nigeria to Bénin, depend on almost 100 000 persons living on this sale activity. This trade might be quite different if gas transported by means of ships on the sea, by the river, or by scooters or trucks on the road. This kind of informal trade gives way to different kinds of odd jobs we mention in the PHD: bringing the jerrycans to the beach, reshaping scooters and trucks in a garage. Most of all this illicit activity needs some kind of a kinship network and political pull among the police and customs officers of the Republic. Empirical research has been done in different fields such as a gas station, a seaside village, a market on the country border, a landing stage, a warehouse, it led to the comprehension of the way smugglers are supplied. I was thus able to understand the process by which gas was transported from Nigeria to the Republic of Bénin, and see all the byways the smugglers are used to take, and the risks taken all along the journey. I examined the interaction process between the racketeers and the police when they passed a checkpoint; see how the markets were busy, and last managed to see how the the different roles of subjects interact. The racketeers networks analysis, life stories, different action strategies, the way they accumulate and the study of informal economy related to law contribute in this PhD to an essay in economic- anthropology with geographic standpoints, and a sociological analysis of precarious lives and Big Shots.

Depuis au moins 500 ans, au sud du bassin du lac Tchad, la région des monts Mandara représente la rencontre géographique et culturelle entre deux mondes aux modes de pensée opposés : les populations des montagnes, égalitaires et non-islamisées, et celles des plaines environnantes, vivant sous le contrôle hiérarchique d’États islamiques, tels que Bornou et Wandala. Cette thèse s’inscrit dans une longue tradition de recherches archéologiques et ethnologiques entreprises depuis une quarantaine d’années dans cette région du monde afin de documenter le rapport ambigu qui existe entre ces deux systèmes sociopolitiques, au passé et au présent. Entre 1993 et 2012, les équipes d’archéologues du Projet Maya Wandala (PMW) et du Projet DGB (Diygyd- bay) ont mis sur pied l’une des plus grosses bases de données céramiques uniformisées de la région. Suivant une approche holistique, diachronique et régionale de la question des contacts culturels en zone frontalière, cette étude porte sur le décor céramique de 150 000 tessons issus de ce corpus. Provenant de huit sites clés du Nord-Cameroun et du Nord-Nigéria, ces petits objets racontent plus de 3000 ans d’histoire de cette région, du Néolithique jusqu’à la fin de l’Âge du Fer Final. Les méthodes d’analyses statistiques de classement (cluster analysis) par nuées dynamiques (k-moyennes) et d’agrégation Ward ont été mises à profit afin d’explorer les similarités et les différences de ces collections, à travers le temps et l’espace. Par la comparaison de mes résultats avec les données archéologiques, ethnologiques et historiques de notre région d’étude, une histoire chronologique de chacun des sites est proposée. Sur le site DGB-1/-2, plus important témoin à ce jour de l’occupation préhistorique des montagnes, les lieux de vie quotidienne, cooking area par exemple, se distinguent de ceux qui servent à l’aménagement physique, entre autres les remblais, malgré la similitude des décors céramique qu’on y retrouve. L’identification de quatre groupes aux décors céramiques particuliers met en exergue les différences qui apparaissent entre les populations des plaines et des montagnes, ainsi qu’entre les populations des plaines associées à l’élite étatique de Wandala, et les autres. Dans le contexte de la mise en place des premiers États centralisateurs dans la région, nous voyons donc comment ce phénomène historique d’importance a eu des répercussions non seulement sur l’occupation et la perception du paysage, mais également sur l’identité céramique. / For the last 500 years at least, in the southern area of Lake Tchad, the Mandara Mountains region represents the geographical and cultural meeting point of two contrasting ways of thinking: the egalitarian and non-Muslim populations of the mountains; and the populations of the surrounding plains—dominated by the hierarchical authority of Islamic states, including Bornou and Wandala states. This thesis is the continuation of a long tradition of archaeological and ethnological research completed during the last 40 years in this region. Its aim is to document the ambiguous relationship that exists between these two socio-political systems, in the past and the present. Between 1993 and 2012, teams of archaeologists working on both the Projet Maya Wandala (PMW) and the Projet DGB (Diy-gyd-bay) established one of the largest ceramic databases in the region. Following a holistic, diachronic and regional approach regarding the issue of cultural contacts in the border area, the present thesis focuses on the analysis on ceramic decoration from this dataset. These potsherds (n=150,000), originating from eight key archaeological sites located in Northern Cameroon and Northern Nigeria, tell the story of the region spanning more than 3000 years, dating from the Neolithic to the end of the Late Iron Age (LIA). Methods of statistical analysis, such as cluster analysis by dynamic clustering (K-Means) and Ward aggregation, have been used in order to explore both similarities and differences present in these collections, through time and space. After a comparison of my results with the archaeological, ethnological and historical data of the study area, a chronology of these sites is proposed based on the ceramic data. On the DGB- 1/-2 site, the most important evidence of prehistoric occupation of the mountains, the domestic spaces, such as the cooking area, are differentiated from those used for redeposited materials, despite the similarity of ceramic decorations found there. The identification of four groups of distinct ceramic decorations underlines the differences that arise between the lowland populations and those from the mountains, as well as between the lowland populations associated with the Wandala elite, and other groups. In the context of the emergence of the first centralised states in this region, we can see how this important historical phenomenon had consequences, not only on occupation and the use of the landscape, but also on ceramic identity.