Thesis (M.COM. (Accounting)) -- University of Limpopo, 2022 / The corporate sustainability performance (CSP) journey is coupled with many complex issues which have subsequently eliminated the boundary between legal and discretionary social practices. In South African JSE SRI listed organisations, sustainability performance programmes are regarded as tools for redressing socioeconomic disparities. However, the influence of sustainability performance on organisations‟ financial performance becomes a vital notion in contemporary sustainable development debates as evidenced by extensive inconclusive literature that has its long roots in the research field. The aim of the study is to examine how corporate sustainability performance influences organisations‟ financial performance which is return on assets (ROA). Through content analysis, secondary data were extracted from annual integrated reports of 175 purposively sampled South African organisations registered on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE SRI Index) for the years 2009-2019. The study employs cross-sectional time series feasible generalised least regression (FGLS) to test the correlation between the dimensions of corporate sustainability performance and return on assets as a proxy for organisational financial performance. The study results confirm that employees‟ health and safety sustainability performance programmes have a significant and positive impact on return on assets, whereas CSP programmes in community social activities have a positive and significant influence on return on assets. An insignificant relationship exists between Eco-investments (socially responsible investments) and return on assets (ROA). The study concluded that there is a significant association between CSP and ROA. The findings further confirm that control variables (leverage ratio, current ratio, total assets turnover, operating profit margin and price earnings ratio) have an effect on the correlation between CSP and ROA. The results have potential implications for corporate sustainability performance policy makers in South Africa, and contribute to corporate sustainability performance/organisations‟ financial performance debate. The study further stresses that continuous review of CSP policies is imperative to ensure that sustainable business practices are achieved.

Thesis (M.Com. (Accounting)) -- University of Limpopo, 2022 / For organisations to be successful, they need key stakeholders like shareholders, customers, employees, banks and the community. These stakeholders are essential in any profit-based organisation. All stakeholders have needs, which have to be balanced. However, it is difficult to balance the needs of different stakeholders as they have different preferences. This study seeks to determine how different needs of stakeholders can be balanced and which of these stakeholders an organisation can prioritise to create value in the organisation. The study used a quantitative method to extract secondary data from the Johannesburg Stock Exchange. The judgemental sampling method was utilised to selected 68 organisations from the JSE, which were utilised to determine which stakeholder has an impact on the value of an organisation. The study did not choose any industry but generalised. The results of the study indicate that shareholders, customers and banks (debtholders) have no effect on the financial performance of the organisation. This means that stakeholders do improve value in an organisation. However, the results further revealed that the community and employees have a positive influence on financial performance. Future researchers can choose one industry to determine how these particular stakeholders influence the financial performance of organisations in a particular industry. In addition, more stakeholders can be identified that are key to organisations. / National Research Fund through Risk and Vulnerability Science Centre

This study aims to investigate how the proportion of female leaders on corporate boards affects firm financial performance during crises. The study investigates Swedish mid-cap and large- cap companies during COVID-19. The years observed are 2018-2021, where the two first years served as the pre-crisis periods, while the two latter as the crisis period. The sample includes 266 companies listed at Nasdaq Stockholm. Regression analysis is performed to investigate if there is a more positive relationship between the proportion of women on corporate boards and firm financial performance during a crisis. The firm financial performance measurements used are return on equity, return on assets, operating margin and Tobin’s Q. Moreover, in accordance with critical mass theory, the study examines if there is a significant relationship between a proportion of at least 40 % women on the board of directors, and financial performance during a crisis. The results of the study show no significant results for either a stronger relationship between the proportion of women and firm financial performance during a crisis or a threshold of 40 % proportion of women on the board. The study contributes to the current literature by expanding the research on gender and crisis management on a corporate level as well as explores the relationship between female board directors and firm financial performance in the Swedish market which has not been executed previously.

In 2019 there were a total of 1090 mergers and acquisitions, more commonly known as M&As made in Sweden. The value of these were around 60 million euro. This compared to the 1990s where the number of M&A transactions were around half of what it is today. There is no doubt that M&As have become a popular strategy for companies to create added value. However, there are some uncertainties regarding if companies benefit from these kinds of transactions. Many of the previous studies point out that companies have had difficulties integrating the merged companies to create added value. This is also the case with financial measurements. The aim of this study was to analyse if there is a significant relationship between acquisitions and financial performance measured with ROE, ROA and EBITDA-margin for Swedish companies during the period 2013–2018. Data on 27 acquisitions were collected from Orbis and Retriever Business. This study uses a quantitative method and a deductive approach. A paired t-test has been used to analyse if there is a significant relationship between acquisitions and financial performance. The result of this study shows that there is no significant relationship between acquisitions and financial performance measured in ROE, ROA and EBITDA-margin. This study concludes that there could be other motives than to create financial added value for the merged companies. It is possible that the decisions of the managers to acquire may have been inspired by motives such as increased independency or empire building. / Under år 2019 genomfördes det i Sverige totalt 1090 fusioner och förvärv, mer känt under begreppet M&A. Det sammanlagda värdet låg på ungefär 60 miljoner euro. Detta är tillskillnad från 90-talet där antalet fusioner och förvärvtransaktioner per år var runt hälften mot var det är idag. Det råder ingen tvekan om att fusioner och förvärv har blivit en alltmer populär strategi för svenska företag i ett försök att skapa värde. Det finns en del otydligheter kring ifall företag faktiskt gynnas av sådana transaktioner. Mycket av den tidigare forskningen menar att företagen har svårigheter att integreras och skapa ett mervärde av de sammanslagna bolagen. Detta gäller även för de finansiella måtten. Studiens syfte var att analysera om det finns ett statistiskt signifikant samband mellan förvärv och finansiell prestation mätt i ROE, ROA samt EBITDA-marginal för svenska företag under 2013–2018. Data för 27 förvärv har samlats in genom Orbis samt Retriever Business. Studien använder sig av en kvantitativ metod och deduktiv ansats. Ett beroende t-test har genomförts med syfte att undersöka om det finns ett statistiskt signifikant samband mellan förvärv och finansiell prestation. Studiens resultat tyder på att det inte finns ett samband mellan förvärven och finansiell prestation mätt i varken ROE, ROA eller EBITDA-marginal. Slutsatserna var att det kan finnas andra motiv än att skapa ett finansiellt mervärde för de ihopsatta bolagen. Det är möjligt att besluten av företagsledare att förvärva kan ha varit inspirerade av motiv såsom ökad självständighet eller imperiebyggande.

This thesis aims to take part of and contribute to the continuously ongoing debate ongender diversity, more specific about gender diversity in the operational level includingthe gender of CEO in Swedish firms across the Large cap, Mid Cap and Small Cap lists.The purpose is to analyze whether there is a statistical significance between operationalgender diversity and financial performance as well as firm volatility. The thesis uses aquantitative method with an OLS multiple regression analysis on a total of 448 Swedishlisted firms. The measures used for performance are return on assets (ROA) and return onequity (ROE), as well as volatility as a risk measure. The test variables used are femaleCEO and female executives, against the control variables females in the board, sector,market capitalization and full-time employees. The results of the thesis suggest that thereis not any significant correlation between the gender of the CEO and firm performance aswell as volatility, and there is neither any significant correlation between the genderdiversity amongst the executives and the firm performance or stock volatility.

Several studies have been conducted with the purpose to investigate the connections between real estate financial performance and ESG performance, mostly on asset level. The literature on ESG disclosure and real estate financial performance is not as explored. On portfolio level there have been different studies investigating if the number of green buildings affects the financial performance of real estate companies, yielding different results which shows that more attention is required in the research area. This paper has investigated disclosure of certified properties in Swedish real estate companies as well as EPRA sBPR participation and effects on the total return index of individual stocks. Panel data models are constructed using daily trading data from fifteen Swedish real estate companies. The results of the analysis indicate that there are positive signs associated with disclosure of green properties and in being part of organizations with clear sustainable ambitions, however the fact that there is not an overwhelming consistency in the results of all models can be seen as a signal that there is still uncertainty in the market around the usefulness of implementing information on certified buildings. For participation in EPRA sBPR a positive effect is found, being significant with cluster robust standard errors. For receiving a sBPR award the effect is slight but positive which is in line with previous findings. It still seems that there is disagreement in the business world on the paths to choose to efficiently incorporate ESG into business decisions. The results of this paper indicating that returns of real estate stocks are only in some cases significantly conditioned by green factors can also reflect this general level of uncertainty in the market. / Ett flertal studier har genförts i syfte att undersöka förhållandet mellan fastigheters finansiella prestanda och ESG prestanda, mestadels på tillgångsnivå. Litteraturen om ESG information och finansiell information för fastigheter är inte lika utforskad. På portfolionivå har olika studier undersökt om antalet gröna byggnader påverkar den finansiella prestanda hos fastighetsbolag, vilket gett olika resultat vilket visar att mer uppmärksamhet för forskningsområdet är nödvändigt. Det här examensarbetet undersöker information om certifierade fastigheter för svenska fastighetsbolag såväl som EPRA sBPR deltagande och effekter på totalavkastningsindexet för individuella aktier. Panel datamodeller konstrueras med hjälp av dagliga handelsdata från femton svenska fastighetsbolag. Resultaten av analysen visar på att det finns positiva tecken associerad med information om gröna fastigheter och att delta i organisationer med tydliga hållbara ambitioner. Samtidigt så visar inkontinensen i resultaten av alla modeller indikationer på att det fortfarande är osäkerhet på marknaden med användbarheten av att offentliggöra information om certifierade byggnader. För deltagande i EPRA sBPR så observeras en positiv effekt som är signifikant med kluster robusta standardfel. För att erhålla en sBPR utmärkelse är effekten liten men positiv vilket är i linje med tidigare observationer. Det verkar som att det fortfarande råder oenighet i affärsvärlden om vilken väg som ska väljas för att effektivt inkorporera ESG i affärsbeslut. Resultaten i det här examensarbetet som indikerar att avkastningen för börsnoterade fastighetsbolag bara i vissa fall signifikant påverkas av gröna faktorer kan också spegla nivån av osäkerhet på marknaden.

Background: After the financial crisis in 2008/2009, ESG earned more attention. It was a consequence of the pressure from the general society about social responsibility and sustainability. Companies needed to change and the management strategies included more stakeholders. More questions regarding whether the work with ESG generated a higher financial performance were examined. Controversial companies within alcohol- tobacco-, and the gambling business have shown a negative impact on individuals. The nature of the companies does not align with social responsibility and sustainability. Purpose: The purpose of this paper was to analyze a sample of controversial listed companies between 2016-2021 to see if there was a relationship between ESG-grade andfinancial performance in terms of ROE, ROA and market value. Method: The study used a positivist deductive approach. Moreover, a quantitative research method was applied and processed secondary data. The data was examined by three linear regressions and set the dependent (ROA, ROE, market value) variables and the independent(ESG) variable in contrast to each other. Conclusions: The study concluded that there was no significant relationship between ESG and financial performance concerning controversial companies. This differed from previous research that examined the same relationship for companies that were not controversial. This implies that controversial companies should evaluate the work with ESG-rating differently based on its main objectives. However it is important to emphasize that two out of the three regressions presented no statistical significance. Therefore, more research is required uponthis topic to generalize credible conclusions. / Bakgrund: Efter den finansiella krisen 2008/2009 fick ESG mer inflytande. Detta var en konsekvens av samhällets påtryckningar om socialt ansvarstagande och hållbarhet. Företagen var tvungna att förändra sig och ledningsstrategierna inkluderade flera intressenter. Fler frågeställningar rådande om arbetet med ESG genererade en högre finansiell prestation undersöktes. Kontroversiella företags verksamheter inom alkohol- tobak- och spelbranschen har påvisat en negativ inverkan på samhällets individer. Verksamheternas karaktär går inte i linje med socialt ansvarstagande och hållbarhet. Syfte: Syftet med studien är att analysera ett urval av kontroversiella börsnoterade företag mellan 2016-2021 för att undersöka hur sambandet mellan ESG-betyg och finansiellprestation verkar i termerna ROE, ROA och marknadsvärde. Metod: Studien har använt sig av ett positivistiskt deduktivt synsätt. Undersökningen var kvantitativ och bearbetade sekundärdata. Syftet undersöktes genom tre linjära regressioner som ställde de beroende (ROA, ROE, marknadsvärde) variablerna och den oberoende (ESG) variabeln mot varandra. Slutsats: Studiens slutsats var att det existerade ett negativt samband mellan arbetet med ESG-betyg och finansiell prestation hos kontroversiella företag. Detta skiljde sig från tidigare forskning som undersökte samma relation för företag som inte var kontroversiella. Det implicerar att kontroversiella företag bör värdera arbetet med ESG-betyget annorlunda utifrån dess huvudmål. Det ska däremot understrykas att två av tre regressioner inte påvisade statistisk signifikans. Det krävs därmed vidare forskning på området för att kunna generalisera resultatet.

Syfte: Det finns idag en förväntan från ägare, kunder och andra intressenter att företag ska rapportera sitt hållbarhetsarbete då hållbarhet vanligtvis syftar till att ta ansvar för sina egna behov samtidigt som den framtida generationen står i fokus. Banksektorn spelar en stor roll i samhället genom deras roll som kapitalleverantörer för den globala utvecklingen, vilket leder till att det också finns ett stort intresse av att de arbetar med hållbarhetsfrågor. En hållbar banksektor är av väsentlig betydelse för ett lands hållbarhetsmål och fortsatta utveckling. Syftet med studien är därmed att undersöka sambandet mellan bankers hållbarhetsprestation, mätt med SOC-Score, och lönsamheten inom den globala banksektorn med fokus på socialt ansvar. Metod: Detta är en kvantitativ studie utförd med en hypotetisk-deduktiv ansats. Sekundärdata har samlats in från Thomson Reuters databas Refinitiv Eikon där 341 banker har analyserats med en longitudinell design för åren 2016–2020. Univariat, bivariat samt multivariat analys av sekundärdata har skett i statistikprogrammet SPSS. Resultat & slutsats: Resultatet av studien visar att det saknas signifikant samband mellan SOC-Score och de beroende variablerna ROA och ROE på den globala banksektorn. Detta medför att studien inte kan dra några direkta slutsatser om det finns ett positivt samband eller inte mellan dessa variabler. Trots att studien saknar signifikant samband, visar studiens regressionsanalyser ändock på att SOC-Score och lönsamheten har en mer negativ relation än en positiv. Examenarbetets bidrag: Studien bidrar till ökad kunskap gällande sambandet mellan finansiell prestation och socialt hållbarhetstagande inom den globala banksektorn. Vi författare hoppas även kunna främja ett mer hållbart arbetssätt.  Förslag till fortsatt forskning: Trots att studien inte genererade ett signifikant samband i banksektorn, visade studiens resultat på ett negativt samband mellan lönsamheten och SOC-score. Det vill säga att det uppstår en kostnad att hållbarhetsrapportera. Vi författare anser att det hade varit intressant att jämföra banker som inte hållbarhetsrapporterar, för att se om de bankerna har sämre lönsamhet än de banker som hållbarhetsrapporterar. Även om det är kostsamt att arbeta med hållbarhet, kanske det ändå är mer lönsamt än att inte göra det alls. Vidare skulle även avgränsningar kunna göras, eventuellt att fokusera på ett visst land eller världsdel.

Research on Voluntary Information Disclosure (VID) has been of interest in several disciplines including, but not limited to, entrepreneurship, accounting, finance, law, and marketing. Although there has been extensive research on VID aimed at financial market investors, scant research in marketing exists on VID targeted at prospective business partners that can influence firm future performance significantly. Financial and marketing disclosures have been advocated for by investors and public policymakers as they mitigate the adverse selection problems between the firm and its stakeholders (e.g., investors, customers, and prospective channel partners). Managers are, however somewhat skeptical about its outcomes because of the cost of disclosures (i.e., ex-ante costs of collecting, processing and disseminating the information, ex-post costs of conflicts and litigations, competitive position and proprietary costs). My dissertation consists of three essays on voluntary disclosure of performance metrics in marketing channels and aims to enhance our understanding of the antecedents and consequences of such VIDs. The first essay examines the antecedents of ex-ante VID for standardized contracts in marketing channels. Prior literature in accounting, entrepreneurship, and marketing has investigated drivers of information disclosures to analysts, investors, and customers. Nonetheless, this study bridges the gap in examining why some firms disclose information to prospective channel partners when it cost them to do so and makes the firms vulnerable to competitors. If the disclosure is a signal of quality, we are also interested in knowing whether it is a substitute for other signals of quality or a complement. I draw on signaling and institutional theories to develop a theoretical framework and empirically test it through econometric analyses of multi-sector panel data for the U.S. franchising industry. The results suggest that firms (e.g., franchisors) make such disclosures to prospective business partners (e.g., franchisees) in order to signal profitability of partnering, to attract financial and managerial resources, and develop their entrepreneurial networks. This study contributes to signaling theory literature by investigating organizational quality signaling, providing empirical evidence for drivers of multiple signaling and shedding light on the conflicting views on substitutability or complementarity of multiple quality signals. The study has implications for managers who wish to attract potential business partners through signaling profitability of their business. Furthermore, there are some insights for regulators on the debate on making voluntary disclosures mandatory. The second essay examines the performance consequences of i) signaling through ex-ante voluntary disclosure of performance metrics and ii) screening through selection standards, in the formation stage of new partnerships in marketing channels. It is essential for many entrepreneurial business networks to expand their channel by attracting business partners while still preventing low-quality partners from joining the network. However, information asymmetry between the two parties introduces a double-sided adverse selection problem to the relationship. In other words, the heterogeneous quality - the ability to perform the job - of each party (i.e., the focal firm or the prospective partner) is unknown to the other party. To date, most of the empirical studies have addressed the issue from only one side, either from the perspective of the buyer or the supplier, and have assumed that the other side is open to the relationship. However, in a selective inter-firm relationship that both parties have the option to select the other party, adverse selection problems should be resolved for both of them to enhance the performance of the partnership. To bridge this gap in the literature (i.e., to mitigate double-sided adverse selection problems), I propose a novel framework based on signaling and transaction cost theories. This study suggests and empirically examines a complementary effect of the simultaneous use of signaling and screening on the firm performance. I integrate secondary data from various sources to shape a unique multi-sector panel data set that allows for assessment of the effects of these predictors on firm performance over time through a rigorous econometric model. Contrary to some claims in the extant literature, the results demonstrate that rigorous screening process hurts the firm performance unless it is combined with a proper quality signaling mechanism. This study contributes to the B2B marketing literature and provides implications for practitioners by shedding light on the performance implications of channel governance mechanisms such as signaling and screening. Further, it provides empirical support for the effects of B2B marketing strategies on firm sales revenue growth. The third essay looks closely into the voluntary disclosure of performance metrics. In the previous studies, the decision to disclose is operationalized as a binary variable of whether a firm discloses or not. In the absence of comprehensive regulation, disclosure strategies are subject to significant variation amongst firms, but can also vary over time within an individual firm. Through a content analysis of disclosure documents and scrutiny of the different components that comprise them, I explore the impact of disclosure content on firm performance. This study attempts to reconcile conflicting views of managers, investors, analysts, and regulators. On the one hand, VID should positively impact firm performance through mitigating information asymmetry. On the other hand, skeptical managers make the argument that VID negatively impacts a firm’s performance through costs of preparation, dissemination, potential litigation, and competition. Using a sample of publicly traded restaurant chains in the U.S., I empirically assess firm performance as a function of the disclosure strategy and its interactions with the firm’s characteristics and governance mechanisms. I collect independent variables from the firms’ disclosures through content analysis of public documents and obtain performance metrics of the firms in the stock market from Compustat. This study provides a novel context within which to investigate whether and how financial markets look at the firm’s disclosure behavior in dealing with its prospective channel partners, and it contributes to marketing-finance interface literature. My dissertation is positioned in the marketing strategy-entrepreneurship interface domain and is a multi-faceted study that looks at the phenomenon of VID from different angles and provides implications for several stakeholders. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Distribution channel strategy has a long-term effect on firm performance, is associated with considerable irreversible costs, and can constitute a sustainable asset and competitive advantage for firms. Information asymmetry among the distribution channel members has been known as the basis of opportunistic actions in such exchange relationships. My dissertation research investigates drivers and consequences of information disclosure strategies and is focused on the firms’ voluntary disclosure of performance metrics at the inter-firm relationship formation stage of developing marketing channels. This dissertation consists of three inter-related essays. In the first one, I study drivers of voluntary information disclosures to prospective channel partners. Then, I investigate the performance consequences of such disclosures and their interactions with channel governance mechanisms such as screening, in the second study. Since firms are heterogeneous in the content of their disclosures, in the third study, I conduct a content analysis of the firm’s disclosures to understand its influence on firm performance. Based on Organizational Economics theories and Institutional Theory, I develop my theoretical frameworks and test them empirically using archival data. The empirical context for my work is the franchising industry because it is the most common type of partner-based retail system and is a significant component of the US economy as well as other developed countries and emerging economies. The research findings offer both theoretical and practical implications for researchers and practitioners and contribute to the literatures on signaling and transaction cost theories as well as information disclosure and franchising.

Eco-innovation is crucial for companies to balance environmental compliance with profitability. It involves implementing more efficient resource use and reducing harmful environmental effects. However, eco-innovation requires significant resources and corporate commitment. This thesis examines how sustainability affects firms’ performance and how some firms’ structures influence this relationship. Three articles are included: one studies the moderating role of the supply chain network in the relationship between corporate environmental and financial performance; the second studies how board gender diversity impacts eco-innovation through a moderated mediation model introducing the CSR committee as a mediator and board-independent members as a moderator; and the third studies the link between eco-innovation and productivity in reducing GHG emissions.