La sénescence est un arrêt stable de prolifération mis en place en réponse à différents stress cellulaires, comme le raccourcissement des télomères (sénescence réplicative) ou le stress oncogénique (sénescence induite par un oncogène, OIS) et constitue un processus s'opposant à la prolifération des cellules tumorales. La plupart des études menées dans des fibroblastes ont permis d'identifier p53 et pRb comme acteurs majeurs de la sénescence. Toutefois, l'étude de l'OIS dans les mélanocytes ou les cellules épithéliales a révélé de nouveaux mécanismes, n'impliquant pas obligatoirement ces deux voies canoniques. L'objectif de ma thèse est de caractériser de nouveaux régulateurs de l'OIS dans les cellules épithéliales. Pour cela deux approches différentes ont été utilisées. Dans une première partie, je me suis intéressée aux effets de l'activité portée par les lysyl oxydases (LOX), famille d'enzyme connue pour favoriser le processus métastatique, sur l'échappement à l'OIS. L'inhibition de LOX et LOXL2 stabilise l'OIS dans les cellules épithéliales mammaires humaines et dans un modèle murin d'adénocarcinomes du pancréas. Ce travail a permis de montrer que l'activité Lox est impliquée dans l'initiation tumorale. Dans un deuxième temps, en utilisant un criblage perte de fonction nous avons isolé plusieurs gènes dont l'inhibition stable d'expression permet un échappement à l'OIS dans les cellules épithéliales mammaire humaines. Parmi eux, j'ai caractérisé l'implication de deux canaux calciques, ITPR2 et MCU, dans l'échappement à la sénescence. ITPR2, qui permet la sortie de calcium du réticulum endoplasmique, et MCU, qui permet l'entrée de calcium dans la matrice de la mitochondrie, s'avèrent être deux acteurs nécessaires à la signalisation calcique lors de l'OIS. De manière importante, les mouvements calciques sont associés à une chute du potentiel de membrane mitochondrial, et à la génération d'espèces réactives de l'oxygène. Ce travail montre que les mouvements calciques semblent également être impliqués dans le processus de sénescence réplicative / Senescence is a stable proliferation arrest triggered by several cellular stresses such as telomeres shortening (replicative senescence) or oncogenic activation (oncogene-induced senescence, OIS). Senescence counteracts proliferation of malignant cells, and as such, constitutes a failsafe program. Senescence was first evidenced in fibroblasts, and most of the following studies were conducted in human or murine fibroblasts, allowing the identification of p53 and pRb pathways as strong regulators of senescence. However the few studies investigating senescence pathways involved in other cell types, such as melanocytes or epithelial cells unveiled new p53/pRB- independent mechanisms. The aim of my thesis was then to characterize new senescence regulators in human epithelial cells. We were first interested in characterizing lysyl oxidase activity (Lox) on OIS escape. LOX enzymes are mainly known to favor metastatic processes. Lox activity inhibition stabilized OIS in vitro, but also senescence in a transgenic murine model of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. This work demonstrated that Lox activity is involved in tumoral initiation by promoting senescence escape. Using a loss-of-function screen, we identified several genes whose down-regulation allowed OIS escape of human mammary epithelial cells. Among them I have characterized ITPR2 and MCU, two calcium-related channels. Loss of ITPR2, known to mediate endoplasmic reticulum (ER) calcium release, as well as loss of MCU, necessary for mitochondrial calcium uptake, enable escape from OIS. During OIS, ITPR2 triggers calcium release from the ER, followed by mitochondrial calcium accumulation through MCU channels. Mitochondrial calcium accumulation leads to a subsequent decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential, reactive oxygen species accumulation and senescence. This ER-mitochondria calcium transport is not restricted to OIS, but is also involved in replicative senescence. Our results show a functional role of calcium release by the ITPR2 channel and its subsequent accumulation in the mitochondria

Les plantes sont des organismes statiques et tributaires des ressources minérales présentes dans leur rhizosphère. La remobilisation des nutriments est un processus qui permet une économie nutritionnelle et un recyclage de macro- et micro - nutriments qui sont le plus souvent limitants. Le rôle du démantèlement des chloroplastes au cours de ce processus est très important pour le recyclage de l’azote, puisque ceux-ci contiennent la majeure partie des protéines foliaires. Bien que les protéines chloroplastiques soient une source essentielle pour le recyclage de l’azote foliaire, leur mécanisme de dégradation est mal connu. L’autophagie, a été proposée comme mécanisme participant au recyclage des nutriments, notamment en situation de carence ou de limitation en azote. L’autophagie, processus cellulaire de dégradation, représente un mécanisme de survie et d’adaptation, par le recyclage et l’élimination des protéines et organelles altérés.La détermination des flux d’azote, entre la rosette et les graines par l’utilisation du marquage à l’isotope stable 15N chez des mutants d’autophagie, nous a permis de montrer que l’autophagie est nécessaire à la remobilisation de l’azote. L’analyse fonctionnelle des mutants d’autophagie a permis de mettre en évidence de profondes perturbations métaboliques résultant dans l’élévation du rapport C/N. Les modifications métaboliques observées montre que les mutants d’autophagie ne présentent pas les signatures métaboliques habituellement retrouvées chez les plantes adaptées à la limitation en azote minéral, qu’ils accumulent au contraire les composés azotés et sont pauvres en ressources carbonées. Les investigations ont également révélé que l’autophagie est sélective envers certaines protéines. L’activité autophagique a été évaluée en fonction de différents niveaux d’expression d’AtTOR et à la suite de l’inhibition de son activité kinase. Ces résultats ont montré qu’AtTOR, senseur du statut nutritionnel, est un régulateur négatif de l’autophagie. L’autophagie est une étape clef du recyclage nutritionnel en réponse à une situation de stress telle que la limitation en azote. / Plants are static organisms dependent on minerals resources available in the rhizosphere. Nutrient recycling is a process allowing a nutritional economy and recycling of macro- and micro- nutrients, which are often limiting. The role of chloroplast dismantling during this process is very important for nitrogen recycling because chloroplasts contain the major part of foliar proteins. Albeit chloroplastic proteins are an essential source for foliar nitrogen recycling, their degradation process is not well understood. Autophagy has been proposed to participate in nutrients recycling, notably in nitrogen starvation or limitation. Autophagy, a cellular degradation process, represents a survival and an adaptation mechanism by recycling and eliminating defectives proteins and organelles.Based on nitrogen fluxes determination between the rosette and the seeds by using 15N labeling in autophagy (atg) mutants, the study has shown that autophagy is necessary for nitrogen remobilization. The functional analysis of atg mutants revealed deep metabolic perturbations resulting in elevated C/N ratio, marker of plant physiology status. The observed metabolic modifications are not the hallmarks of an adaptation to nitrogen limitation. Autophagy mutants indeed accumulate nitrogen compounds and present low carbohydrate contents. The investigations also revealed that autophagy is selective towards some proteins. Autophagic ativity has been evaluated function of different AtTOR expression levels and following AtTOR activity inhibition. Results have shown that AtTOR, a sensor of the nutritional status, is a negative regulator of autophagy. Autophagy is a key step for nitrogen recycling in response to stress situation like nitrogen limitation.

Les chromosomes linéaires se terminent par des régions particulières, les télomères, qui assurent l'intégrité et la stabilité du génome. Chez les eucaryotes, les télomères déterminent également le potentiel de prolifération de cellules en déclenchant la sénescence réplicative. Ce signal se produit lors du raccourcissement des télomères en l'absence de la télomérase. Chez Saccharomyces cerevisiae, il est probablement médié par le premier télomère de la cellule qui atteint une taille courte critique. Ce télomère raccourci, active ensuite une réponse de dommage à l’ADN. Comment la signalisation est modulée en termes de structure et du contexte télomérique est largement inconnue. Au cours de ma thèse, j’ai cherché à comprendre l'influence de l'environnement chromatinien sur le signal de la sénescence à partir du télomère le plus court. La comparaison de deux souches dans lesquelles le télomère le plus court contient les éléments sous-télomériques naturels ou non, nous montre qu'une région sous-télomérique comprenant un élément X s'oppose à la mise en place de la sénescence. Cet effet n'est probablement pas dû à des différences de réparation par récombinaison homologue dépendante de Rad51 aux deux types de télomères. De plus, la transcription de TERRA est induite dans les deux types de télomères courts, bien que les niveaux soient plus élevés en l'absence d'éléments sous-télomériques naturels. Ensemble, ces résultats démontrent que la transcription à partir d'une région proximale du télomère augmente considérablement lorsque le télomère le plus court atteint une taille critique, indépendamment de la présence d'un sous-télomère natif ou d’un promoteur TERRA dédié. Cette transcription au télomère court est similaire à la transcription trouvée aux cassures double-brin chez d'autres organismes. / Linear chromosomes end with special regions, the telomeres, which ensure the integrity and the stability of the genome. In eukaryotes, telomeres also determine cell proliferation potential by triggering replicative senescence. This occurs upon telomere shortening in the absence of telomerase. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, it is likely mediated by the first telomere in the cell that reaches a critically short length. This shortened telomere subsequently activates a DNA-damage-like response. How the signaling is modulated in terms of telomeric structure and context is largely unknown. During my thesis, I aimed at understanding the influence of the chromatin environment on the senescence signal starting at the shortest telomere. By comparing two sets of strains in which the shortest telomere either harbors naturally occurring subtelomeric elements or lacks these elements altogether, we show that a subtelomeric region comprising an X element counteracts the establishment of senescence. This effect is likely not due to differential Rad51-mediated homology directed repair activities at both types of telomeres. Furthermore, TERRA transcription is induced at both types of critically short telomeres, although levels are elevated in the absence of natural subtelomeric elements. Together, our results demonstrate that transcription from a telomere-proximal region greatly increases when the shortest telomere reaches a critical length, regardless of the presence of a native subtelomere or a dedicated TERRA promoter. This transcription at short telomere is intriguingly reminiscent of the transcripts found at double-strand breaks in other organisms.

Les dommages de l’ADN, induits par les traitements de chimiothérapie, sont responsables de l’induction de la sénescence, un arrêt définitif du cycle cellulaire dépendant des voies p53-p21 et p16-Rb. L'efficacité de cette suppression n’est pas optimale en raison d’une hétérogénéité de réponse à la chimiothérapie. Dans cette étude, nous avons analysé l’échappement à la sénescence en réponse à l’irinotécan, un traitement des cancers colorectaux. Dans les cellules LS174T, le processus de sénescence est induit mais des cellules conservent leurs capacités prolifératives et l’exercent après l’élimination du traitement. Les cellules proliférantes (PLD) et sénescentes (PLS) forment un mélange hétérogène appelé cellules persistantes (PLCs). Alors qu’elles sont constituées d’une part importante de cellules sénescentes, les PLCs sont capables de former des tumeurs in vivo, de manière comparable aux cellules parentales. De façon intéressante, le traitement est également associé à l’augmentation de l’agressivité caractérisée par la croissance en faible adhérence. L’émergence des PLD et la résistance à l’anoikis sont dépendantes de l’expression des protéines Mcl-1, Bcl-xL et p21. L’enrichissement des PLD et PLS, réalisé par cytométrie en flux, a permis d’identifier les PLS comme nécessaires à la résistance à l’anoikis. Les PLS pourraient donc créer un environnement favorable à la transformation de cellules non touchées par le traitement. Alors que le rôle de Mcl-1 et Bcl-xL dans chaque population reste à déterminer, l’utilisation d’inhibiteurs de ces protéines combinés à l’irinotécan pourrait limiter l’hétérogénéité de réponse à la chimiothérapie et l’agressivité tumorale. / Activated by chemotherapy, senescence is a suppressive response which prevents cell cycle progress through activation of the p53-p21 and p16-Rb signaling pathways. However, despite the efficiency of this suppression, cancer cells can emerge to induce clinical relapse. In this study, we analyzed senescence escape in response to irinotecan, one of the first line treatment used in colorectal cancer. After treatment, senescence is induced in LS174T cell but a subpopulation of cells finally resume proliferation. Persistent cells (PLCs) are composed of an heterogenous mixture of senescent (PLS) and dividing cells (PLD). In spite of PLS, PLCs are able to grow in vivo as efficiently as parental LS174T cells. Importantly, persistence induced the emergence of more transformed cells characterized by the ability to grow in low adhesion conditions. PLD emergence and anoikis resistance depend on Mcl-1, Bcl-xL and p21. PLD and PLS enrichment, by flow cytometry, allowed us to identify PLS as essential for anoikis resistance. Our results suggest that PLS establish a favorable environment for the transformation of unaffected cells. Mcl-1 and Bcl-xL role in each population remains to be determined, but inhibitors of these protein used in combination with irinotecan should restrict the heterogeneity of the response and tumoral aggressiveness.

Orientador: Valeria Helena Alves Cagnon Quitete / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-22T09:05:18Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Hetzl_AmandaCia_D.pdf: 39910159 bytes, checksum: 9f69d8623d48f1fccdc9aebc181573a3 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / Resumo: A senescência é fator determinante para a ocorrência de alterações morfofuncionais da próstata. O objetivo desse estudo foi caracterizar e correlacionar as interações entre os receptores dos fatores de crescimento fibroblásticos (FGFR2, FGFR7, FGFR8), fator de crescimento epidermal (EGFR), ?-actina e vimentina e os receptores androgênicos (AR), estrogênicos ? e ? (ER?, ER?) e de prolactina (PR) nos compartimentos epiteliais e estromal frente à condição de senilidade e variações hormonais. Além disso, caracterizar e correlacionar o AR, ER?, ER? e PR com os FGFs nos compartimentos epitelial e estromal de amostras humanas com adenocarcinoma de alto grau e baixo grau. 50 ratos machos senis (10 meses de idade) e 10 ratos machos jovens (4 meses de idade) foram divididos em grupos: Jovem (JOV) e Senil (SE): óleo de amendoim por 30 dias; Castrado (CAS): castração cirúrgica e química; Tamoxifeno-Letrozol (TAM): tamoxifeno e de letrozol por 30 dias; Castrado+estrógeno (REEST): tratamento similar ao CAS, e posteriormente recebeu injeções de 17?-estradiol por 30 dias; Tamoxifeno-Letrozol+Andrógeno (RETEST): após tratamento similar ao grupo TAM, os animais receberam injeções de Cipionato de Testosterona por 30 dias. Os animais foram sacrificados e amostras do lobo ventral foram coletadas e submetidas às análises de Microscopia de Luz, imunohistoquímicas, western blotting e dosagem hormonal. 30 amostras prostáticas humanas foram divididas em grupos: Adenocarcinoma de alto grau e Adenocarcinoma de baixo grau. As amostras foram submetidas às análises de Microscopia de luz e imunohistoquímicas. Após a administração estrogênica, presença de microácinos, células inflamatórias e hipertrofia do estroma prostático foram observados. A hiperandrogenização levou à recuperação epitelial. No SE houve aumento de vimentina, ER? e PR em relação ao JOV. No CAS observou-se localização diferencial da prolactina e ?-actina em relação ao SE. No RETEST, observou-se recuperação do padrão de distribuição de reatividade da ?-actina e da prolactina em relação ao SE. No REEST foi observado aumento de ER? e ER? e localização diferencial destes, somando-se a diminuição da ?-actina e vimentina em relação ao SE. No TAM foi observada diminuição de ER? e ?-actina, e aumento de prolactina no compartimento estromal, em relação ao SE. Em humanos, os FGFR2 e FGFR8 apresentaram-se aumentados no estágio inicial do câncer prostático, sugerindo essas moléculas como bons alvos terapêuticos. Pode-se concluir que o envolvimento do ER? na ativação do estroma reativo tornou o microambiente favorável à progressão do câncer, devido à potencialização do desequilíbrio estromal, e o ER? contribuíram para a inibição das lesões précancerosas em homens na senescência. Já, o desequilíbrio causado pela ablação e/ou reposição hormonal não somente alterou o feedback entre os hormônios esteróides como modificou a localização da reatividade das moléculas nos compartimentos prostáticos, provavelmente interferindo nas sinalizações autócrinas e parácrinas dos estrógenos, EGF e prolactina, apontando esses como deflagradores da formação do estroma reativo. A ablação hormonal nos animais senis levou ao aumento da reatividade dos FGFs, sugerindo interações entre os hormônios e suas vias de sinalização e o microambiente prostático senil. As vias dos FGFs podem ser ativadas também de maneira andrógeno-independente, uma vez que os FGFs apresentaram níveis de detecção aumentados mesmo diante da intensa depleção androgênica imposta pela castração / Abstract: Senescence is a determining factor for morphological and functional prostatic alterations. The objective of this study was to characterize and correlate the interactions among fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFR2, FGFR7, FGFR8), epidermal growth factor (EGFR), ?-actin and vimentin and the androgen receptor (AR), estrogen ? and ? (ER?, ER?) and prolactin (PR) in epithelial and stromal prostatic compartments in elderly rats on hormonal variation. Also, the objective was to characterize and correlate the AR, ER?, ER? and PR with the FGFs in the human prostatic samples, presenting high grade and low grade adenocarcinoma. Fifty male rats (10 months old) and 10 young male rats (4 months old) were divided into groups: Young (JOV) and Senile Groups (SE)- peanut oil injections for 30 days, Castrated Group (CAS)- surgical and chemical castration; Tamoxifen-Letrozole Group (TAM)- tamoxifen and letrozole injections in period of 48 hours for 30 days; Castrated + estrogen Group (REEST)- surgical and chemical castration and subsequently the animals received 17?-estradiol injections for 30 days; Tamoxifen- Letrozole + Androgen Group (RETEST): after treatment similar to the TAM group, the animals received testosterone cypionate injections for 30 days. After the treatment, the animals were sacrificed and the ventral lobe samples were collected and analyzed for the Light Microscopy, immunohistochemistry and Western blotting. Thirty human prostatic samples were collected from elderly men and divided into High-grade and Low-grade Adenocarcinoma Groups. The samples were submitted to light microscopy and immunohistochemical analyses. After estrogen administration, epithelial atrophy, microacini, inflammatory cells and stromal hypertrophy were observed. The hyperandrogenization led to the recovery of epithelium. The vimentin, ER? and PR increase was verified in the SE group in relation to JOV one. Differential localization of PR and ?-actin was seen in the CAS group in relation to SE one. Recovery of the distribution pattern of ?-actin and prolactin reactivities was observed in the RETEST group in relation to SE. In the REEST group, it was observed the ER? and ER? increase and differential localization of these receptors, and the ?-actin and vimentin decrease in relation to SE. In the group TAM, it was observed the ER? and ?-actin decrease and the prolactin increase in the stromal compartment in relation to SE group. Regarding to human samples, increased FGFR2 and FGFR8 were observed in the early stages of prostate cancer, suggesting these molecules as good therapeutic targets. Thus, it can be concluded that the involvement of ER? in activation of reactive stromal led to the favorable microenvironment to cancer progression considering the strong stromal imbalance, and the ER? contributed to the inhibition of precancerous lesions in elderly men. The imbalance caused by ablation and/or hormone therapy not only changed the feedback between steroid hormones but also changed the reactivity localization of molecules in prostatic compartments, probably interfering in the autocrine and paracrine signaling of estrogen, prolactin and EGF, and pointing these molecules as possible triggers of the formation of reactive stroma. The present results demonstrated that hormone ablation in senile rats led to increased reactivities of the FGFs, suggesting interactions among hormones and their signaling pathways and senile prostatic microenvironment. Furthermore, it can be concluded that the ways of FGFs can be activated also androgen-independent manner, considering that the FGFs showed increased levels in the severe androgen depletion characterized by castration / Doutorado / Anatomia / Doutora em Biologia Celular e Estrutural

Leaves are responsible for the majority of the fixed carbon in most plant species. Along leaf development, the photosynthetic capacity increases until the organ reaches maturity. Consequently, at the onset of senescence the leaves have the highest photosynthetic activity, then, as the chloroplasts are dismantled and the photosynthetic machinery is degraded, leaves gradually lose the rate of carbon assimilation. Although the capacity to fix carbon declines as senescence progresses, nutrient remobilization from macromolecule degradation nourishes the developing sink organs. In this regard, delaying leaf senescence stands out as a promising strategy to increase plant yield as extends the window of time with maximum carbon fixation rate. Another approach that is receiving much attention is the manipulation of chlorophyll degradation once it potentially regulates photosynthetic capacity and affects the nutritional quality of harvestable organs. As chlorophyll is degraded, the released phytol is recycled and can be either stored (i.e. as fatty acid phytyl esters), used for chlorophyll synthesis or be incorporated in tocopherol biosynthesis. Tocopherols have high nutraceutical value due to their antioxidant properties. However, the majority of the studies regarding senescence and chlorophyll degradation were carried out in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana or grasses, creating a knowledge gap about these processes in fleshy fruit-bearing plants of human diet interest. In this regard, the tomato, Solanum lycopersicum, is an excellent model not only for the genetic and genomic resources, but also for its agronomic and nutritional importance. Thus, this project aims to extend what is known about the effects of chlorophyll degradation and senescence manipulation over the metabolism and yield of tomato plants, as well as fruit nutritional quality. In order to evaluate the consequences of alteration in chlorophyll degradation, first the enzymes chlorophyllase and pheophytinase, both capable of dephytylating the chlorophyll molecule, were identified and characterised. An extensive phylogenetic, evolutive and transcriptional analysis allowed the identification of two groups of chlorophyllases, one putatively involved in the response to different stimuli, while the other may act in chlorophyll homeostasis. As for pheophytinase, only one group was identified, being related to physiologically programmed processes that trigger chlorophyll degradation (i.e. leaf senescence and fruit ripening). Given this scenario, pheophytinase was chosen to be constitutively knocked-down in order to evaluate the effects over the metabolism of leaves and fruits. As consequence of this manipulation, transgenic plants were impaired in the leaf senescence-associated chlorophyll breakdown, but, although with an initial delay, fruit ripening-associated degreening was not compromised. Several photosynthetic and biochemical parameters were signs of photoinhibition, possibly due to a deficiency in chlorophyll recycling in leaves. This led to an increase in sugar exportation towards fruits, ultimately increasing soluble sugar content of ripe fruits. However, as a consequence, carotenoid levels were reduced, what, at least partially, it was compensated by an increase in tocopherol content. The results indicated that pheophytinase plays a role beyond senescence-associated chlorophyll degradation and its manipulation led to the development of fruit with increased soluble sugars and tocopherols at the cost of lowering carotenoid levels. Thus, these evidences support the manipulation of chlorophyll breakdown as a strategy for improvement of fleshy fruit plants. In order to address the effects of senescence over yield and fruit quality, the transcription factor ORESARA1, which has been widely characterised in A. thaliana and is considered a key regulator of senescence initiation, was targeted. After a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis and the characterization of the regulatory mechanisms, one putative ortholog was selected to be silenced. As consequence of this manipulation, leaves displayed increased chlorophyll content. Moreover, as senescence was delayed, the extent of photosynthetic activity of the leaves was also expanded. As the number of fruits was increased in the knockdown lines, this reflected in an increment in the harvest index. Ripe fruits accumulated more soluble sugars and tocopherols. Collectively, the results support the manipulation of leaf senescence as a strategy for tomato yield improvement. Altogether, data obtained enhance the knowledge about the impacts of chlorophyll degradation and leaf senescence over the metabolism of fleshy-fruit plants, providing strategies to increase yield and nutritional quality of fruits / As folhas, para a maioria das espécies vegetais, são o principal órgão responsável pela fixação de carbono. Durante o desenvolvimento foliar, o potencial fotossintético aumenta até a folha atingir a sua maturidade. Consequentemente, no momento que o programa de senescência se inicia, a folha apresenta a maior taxa de fotossíntese, a qual passa então a declinar conforme o cloroplasto se desorganiza e a maquinaria fotossintética é degradada. Apesar da redução na fixação de carbono, o catabolismo de macromoléculas possibilita a remobilização de nutrientes para os órgãos dreno em desenvolvimento. Neste contexto, atrasar a senescência destaca-se como uma promissora estratégia para aumento da produtividade, uma vez que estende o período de máxima fixação de carbono das folhas. Outra estratégia que tem recebido atenção por, potencialmente, regular a capacidade fotossintética e afetar a qualidade nutricional dos órgãos coletáveis é a manipulação da degradação da clorofila. Durante o catabolismo deste pigmento, o fitol liberado é reciclado podendo ser armazenado (i.e. na forma de ésteres de fitil com ácidos graxos), ser utilizado na síntese de novas moléculas de clorofila ou ser incorporado na rota biossintética de tocoferóis. Estes últimos compostos, por seu potencial antioxidante, possuem alto valor nutracêutico. No entanto, a maior parte dos estudos sobre senescência e degradação de clorofila foi realizada na planta modelo Arabidopsis thaliana ou em gramíneas, tornando escassas as informações relativas a plantas com frutos carnosos de interesse para a dieta humana. Nesse âmbito, o tomateiro, Solanum lycopersicum, é um excelente modelo de estudo não apenas pela disponibilidade de recursos genético e genômicos, mas também pela importância agronômica e nutricional desta espécie. Assim, este trabalho pretende expandir o conhecimento acerca dos efeitos da manipulação da degradação de clorofila e da senescência sobre o metabolismo e produtividade do tomateiro, bem como sobre a qualidade nutricional dos frutos. De modo a se avaliar as consequências de alterações na degradação de clorofila, iniciou-se por identificar e caracterizar em tomateiro as enzimas clorofilase e feofitinase, as quais catalisam a defitilação da molécula de clorofila. Uma vasta análise filogenética, evolutiva e transcricional permitiu a identificação de dois grupos de clorofilases, um dos quais estaria envolvido na plasticidade de respostas a estímulos e o outro na homeostase dos níveis de clorofila. Já para feofitinase, somente um grupo foi identificado, o qual está relacionado a processos fisiologicamente programados que levam à degradação de clorofila (i.e. senescência foliar e amadurecimento de frutos). Dado o panorama obtido, a feofitinase foi escolhida para ser constitutivamente silenciada de modo a se avaliar as consequências para o metabolismo de folhas e frutos. Como consequência do silenciamento, as linhagens transgênicas mostraram-se incapazes de degradar clorofila durante a senescência, mas, embora com um atraso nas etapas iniciais, a degradação ao longo do amadurecimento de frutos não foi comprometida. Diversos parâmetros fotossintéticos e bioquímicos foram indicativos de fotoinibição, possivelmente em virtude de uma deficiência na reciclagem da clorofila em folhas. Isto acarretou em um aumento na exportação de açúcares para frutos, incrementando a concentração de açúcares solúveis nos frutos maduros, que, em contrapartida, resultou na queda nos teores de carotenoides. A queda nestes compostos antioxidantes foi, ao menos parcialmente, compensada por um aumento nos níveis de tocoferóis. Os resultados indicaram que a feofitinase possui um papel além da degradação de clorofila associada à senescência, e que sua manipulação leva ao desenvolvimento de frutos com maior teor de açúcares solúveis e de tocoferóis ao custo da redução no de carotenoides. Desta forma, estas evidências suportam a manipulação da clorofila como estratégia para o melhoramento de frutos carnosos. Para investigar o efeito da senescência sobre a produtividade e qualidade de frutos foi escolhido o fator de transcrição ORESARA1, o qual está amplamente caracterizado em A. thaliana e é considerado um regulador chave no desencadeamento deste processo. A partir de uma extensa análise filogenética e da caracterização de sua regulação, um putativo ortólogo foi selecionado como alvo para silenciamento. Como consequência desta manipulação, folhas apresentaram os níveis de clorofila incrementados. Além disto, taxas fotossintéticas maiores que as do genótipo controle foram mantidas por maior tempo indicando que a iniciação da senescência foi retardada. Assim, estas plantas produziram um maior número de frutos, consequentemente, aumentando o índice de colheita dessas linhagens. Os frutos maduros apresentaram maiores teores de açúcares solúveis e de tocoferóis. Os resultados demostraram que o retardo do início da senescência é uma estratégia efetiva para aumento da produtividade de tomateiro. Coletivamente, os resultados obtidos aprofundam o conhecimento acerta dos impactos da degradação de clorofila e senescência sobre o metabolismo de plantas com frutos carnoso, além de prover estratégias para se incrementar a produtividade e a qualidade nutricional de frutos

A descondensação da cromatina exerce um papel central nas diversas etapas do processo de carcinogênese abrindo o genoma para a ação de fatores de transcrição, exercendo papel na progressão e resistência tumoral. Bromodomínios e proteínas com terminal extra, como o BRD4, são leitores epigenéticos que regulam a expressão gênica e, portanto, também estão envolvidos na patogênese do câncer. O objetivo do presente estudo foi estudar o efeito da inibição do BRD4 no carcinoma espinocelular de cabeça e pescoço (CECP). Para esse propósito, foi utilizado JQ1, inibidor de BRD4, em concentração de 1uM, nas linhagens de carcinoma de cabeça e pescoço HN6, HN12 e HN13. Foi analisado os níveis de BRD4, H4 acetilada e SIRT1 fosforilado através de reações de imunofluorecência e p16ink4 por imunohistoquímica. Foi realizado western blot para checar os níveis de p53 e p53 acetilado. Ensaio de formação de colônias e câmera de invasão foram realizados para testar o efeito do inibidor na proliferação e invasão celular. Através da citometria de fluxo foi analisado o efeito da apoptose com a marcação de caspase-3 clivada, do ciclo celular através da reação por iodeto de propídio e ainda da população de células tronco tumorais pela análise de ALDH e CD44. Por fim, foi realizado modelo xenográfico subcutâneo para analisar o efeito do JQ1. Os resultados mostraram diminuição significativa da expressão de BRD4 e H4ac após tratamento com JQ1. As linhagens celulares mostraram redução na capacidade de invasão e de formação de colônias quando submetidas ao JQ1. Não foram encontradas diferenças em relação ao número de células caspase-3 clivada positivas. Por outro lado, foi encontrado um maior número de células na fase G1 do ciclo celular após o uso do inibidor estudado. As células tratadas com JQ1 mostraram menor expressão de p-SIRT1 o que levou a uma diminuição da acetilação do p53 e um aumento na expressão de p16ink4. Paralelamente, foi encontrado uma diminuição na população de células positivas para ALDH e CD44. Houve diminuição do crescimento do tumor no modelo xenográfico tratado com JQ1 quando comparado ao veículo. Nos tecidos derivados do ensaio in vivo, houve uma diminuição nos marcadores p16ink4, pSIRT1 além de acúmulo de H2AX. Conclui-se que o uso de JQ1 resulta na disrupção do crescimento do CECP associado a ativação de senescência, indução de dano de DNA além de reduzir a população de células tronco tumorais. Esses novos achados indicam que o BRD4 é um importante modificador epigenético nos CECP sendo um viável alvo terapêutico. / Chromatin descondensation plays a central step in the various stages of the carcinogenesis process opening the genome for transcription factors playing a role in tumor progress and resistance. Bromodomains and extra terminal family, as BRD4, are epigenetics readers that regulate gene expression thus they are also involved in cancer pathogenesis. The objective of this project was studied the effect of BRD4 in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). For this purpose, JQ1, a BRD4 inhibitor, was used in 1uM concentration, in HN6, HN12 and HN13 head and neck carcinoma cell lines. The levels of BRD4, acetylates h4 and phosphorylated SIRT1 were analyzed by immunofluorescence and p16ink4 labeling by immunohistochemistry. Western blot was performed to check the levels of p53 and acetylated p53. Colony assay and invasion chamber were performed to test the inhibitory effect on cell proliferation and invasion. The effect of apoptosis with the cleaved caspase-3 labeling, the cell cycle by propidium iodide and of the population of tumor stem cells by the analysis of ALDH and CD44 was analyzed through flow cytometry. Finally, a subcutaneous xerographic model was performed to analyze the effect of JQ1. A significant decrease in the expression of BRD4 and H4ac was found after application of JQ1. The cell lines results showed a reduction in the capacity of invasion and also formation of colonies when submitted to JQ1. No differences were found in relation to the number of cells caspase-3 cleaved positives. On the other hand, a large number of cells were found in G1 arrest of cell cycle after use of the BRD4 inhibitor studied. Cells treated with JQ1 showed lower expression of p-SIRT1 which led to a decrease in p53 acetylation and an increase in p16ink4 expression. In parallel, a decrease of ALDH and CD44 positive cells population was found. A decrease in tumor growth was discovered when treated by JQ1 if compared to the vehicle. In tissues samples derived from the in vivo assay, there was a decrease in p16ink4, pSIRT1 markers in addition to -H2Ax accumulation. In conclusion JQ1 causes HNSSC tumor growth disruption associated a senescence activation, DNA damage and a reduce number of cancer stem cells. These new findings indicate that BRD4 is an important genetic modifier in HNSSC and is a viable therapeutic target.

Contexte : Le lien entre insuffisance cardiaque et obésité n’est pas clairement établi, et les mécanismes mis en jeu le sont encore moins.Objectif : Confirmer l’existence de la cardiopathie métabolique et explorer ses mécanismes physiopathologiques par mise au point de modèles de souris associés à des techniques de modulations.Méthode : Etablissement d’un modèle de souris sauvages (WT, C57/BL6J, mâle) soumises à un régime riche en graisse (60% de graisse, HFD), associé à des techniques de modulation comme l’exercice (natation) et l’ablation de la graisse viscérale. Utilisation de souris déficientes pour le gène de l’ostéopontine (voie de la sénescence). Analyse des effets du régime HFD sur le tissu adipeux et ses fonctions métaboliques, et sur le myocarde et sa contractilité. Analyse en parallèle des effets du vieillissement physiologique chez les souris WT et déficientes sur ces mêmes paramètres. Recherche d’un lien entre dysfonction du tissu adipeux et dysfonction cardiaque au travers de l’exploration des voies de la sénescence, notamment celle de l’ostéopontine.Résultats : Nous avons tout d’abord confirmé l’existence d’une cardiopathie métabolique induite par le régime HFD. Cette cardiopathie se manifestait par un remodelage avec fibrose myocardique associé à une dysfonction systolique visible uniquement en strain rate (FEVG normale) et en hémodynamique invasive. Chez ces souris obèses, nous avons retrouvé une augmentation du taux plasmatique de marqueurs pro-fibrotiques (TGF, leptine) et une baisse des marqueurs protecteurs (adiponectine), le tout secondaire à une dysfonction du tissu adipeux qui prédominait au niveau viscéral. En parallèle, nous avons observé une fibrose myocardique avec dysfonction systolique au cours du vieillissement physiologique, elle-même associée à une augmentation de la production d’ostéopontine par le tissu adipeux viscéral. D’ailleurs, les souris déficientes pour le gène de l’ostéopontine étaient protégées de la sénescence cardiaque. L’ablation de la graisse viscérale et l’utilisation de drogues inhibant l’ostéopontine chez les souris WT protégeaient également de la sénescence cardiaque ce qui confirmait le rôle du tissu adipeux dans ce processus via la production d’ostéopontine. Enfin, des résultats préliminaires chez les souris HFD montraient également un effet protecteur de l’ablation de la graisse viscérale vis-à-vis de la dysfonction cardiaque.Conclusion : La cardiopathie métabolique secondaire à l’obésité est donc une entité bien réelle. Nous avons établi la preuve de concept du rôle de la sénescence du tissu adipeux viscéral dans les altérations cardiaques qui sont assimilables à un vieillissement cardiaque prématuré. L’ostéopontine est une cible thérapeutique potentielle à explorer. / Background: The link between heart failure and obesity is not clear, and the mechanisms are unknown.Objectives: To validate the existence of metabolic cardiomyopathy and to explore the underlying mechanisms using mice models and rescue technics.Method: Establish a wild type mice model (WT, C57/BL6J, male) fed with a high fat diet (60% of fat, HFD), associated with rescue technics such as exercise (swimming) or visceral fat ablation. Use of a transgenic mice model with a deletion for the Osteopontin gene (OPN, senescence pathway). Analysis of HFD consequences on the adipose tissue histology and function, on the myocardial histology and function. In addition, analysis of the effects of physiological aging on the same parameters in WT and OPN mice. Finally, explore the link between adipose tissue dysfunction and cardiac dysfunction through the senescence pathway analysis, especially the OPN pathway.Results: First, we confirmed the development of a metabolic cardiomyopathy in HFD mice, which was characterized by left ventricular remodeling with myocardial fibrosis associated with a systolic dysfunction detected only by strain rate (normal LVEF) and in-vivo hemodynamic technics. In addition, we observed in the plasma of HFD mice an increase in pro-fibrotic markers (TGF, leptin) and a decrease in protective markers (adiponectine), which was related to a visceral adipose tissue dysfunction. We also observed a myocardial fibrosis with systolic dysfunction during physiological aging associated with an increased release of osteopontin from the visceral adipose tissue. Moreover, OPN ko mice were protected from cardiac senescence. The surgical removal of the visceral adipose tissue and the use of OPN inhibitors in WT mice also protected from cardiac senescence, which corroborated the role of the adipose tissue and its OPN production in the aging process. Finally, preliminary results on HFD mice showed a cardiac protection from visceral adipose tissue removal.Conclusion: The metabolic cardiomyopathy is a real entity, in which our data establish the proof-of –concept that adipose tissue senescence plays a key role in cardiac alteration that may be considered as premature cardiac aging. OPN may constitute a promising therapeutic target.

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